In recent years, there have been a number of initiatives to plant millions of trees, both here in the UK and in many other countries.  For example, http://www.stumpupfortrees.org/bryn-arw-common-pilot-plant/ https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/press-release/national-trusts-plans-for-20-million-right-trees-in-right-places-take-root https://queensgreencanopy.org https://onelifeonetree.com https://earthwatch.org.uk/get-involved/tiny-forest?gclid=EAIaIQobChMIiqyVxOvA9w https://earthwatch.org.uk/get-involved/tiny-forest The trees are not being planted to increase timber production. They are to help offset global warming as trees take up carbon dioxide through photosynthesis, so they remove this greenhouse gas from the atmosphere thus helping to offset global warming. However, planting just ‘any old tree’ is not going to solve anything, so scientists from Kew Gardens (RBG Kew) and Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) have set out ten ‘golden rules’ for reforestation. The "Kew" guidelines have been summarised as below : Protect existing forests first Put local people at the heart of tree-planting projects Maximise biodiversity recovery to meet multiple goals Select the right area for reforestation Use natural forest regrowth wherever possible Select the right tree species that can maximise biodiversity Make sure the trees are resilient to adapt to a changing climate Plan ahead Learn by doing Make it pay However, fast as trees are being planted in many places, there have been substantial losses of forests and woodlands in recent times.  The blog has reported on the extensive fires in Sweden, and the Mediterranean.  The recent fires in boreal regions have been extensive and worrying - they have affected Canada, Russia and Alaska.  In the last year, Russia lost some 6.5 million hectares of tree cover.  Boreal forests are often portrayed as vast tracts of ancient, untouched wilderness. Whilst it is true that the boreal region is in itself ancient, the boreal forests are generally composed of relatively young trees trees (as compared to the oaks etc. found in temperate forests and woodlands). Historically speaking, boreal forests have renewed themselves through natural regeneration, after fires.  But now with climate change and rising temperatures, conditions are drier and the fires are more frequent and more intense.  There is also a problem of  damage by insects. The loss of forests in tropical and sub-tropical regions has been a cause for concern for many years, not only because of their importance in generating oxygen and removing carbon dioxide but also as they represent areas of great biodiversity.  Sadly, the loss of such forested areas continues, despite the commitments made at COP26  (where some 141 countries committed to "halt and reverse forest loss by 2030.").   [caption id="attachment_38123" align="aligncenter" width="700"] clear felling in progress[/caption] Forest / tree clearance occurs as a result of clearance for activities such as cattle ranching or the production of palm oil.  However, as a result of the events in Ukraine / Russia the availability / prices of certain oils is now high.  This is also true for palm oil so the ‘temptation’ to convert forested areas into palm oil plantations is significant.   Whilst there is clear evidence that various countries and governments are involved in the creation of woodlands & forests through tree planting initiatives, and working to reduce the loss of primary forests to agriculture or timber extraction, there is concern that nature itself is beginning to work against us. Changing weather patterns, increasing temperatures and extreme climate events are already affecting many forested ecosystems.  

Super fast poplar trees ? In theory, increasing the number of trees across the globe could help reduce the levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide that are so intimately associated with climate change.   As trees grow, they absorb carbon dioxide from the air turning into wood.  This effectively locks away the carbon for a period of time.  However, the growth of trees can be slow so if trees could be ‘persuaded’ to grow faster then more carbon could be ‘locked up’ A San Francisco based company called “Living Carbon” has genetically modified hybrid poplar trees to speed up photosynthesis so that they grow faster.  They picked on the poplar trees as their genome had already been sequenced. The work of Living Carbon is at early stage and further work is needed to see if the enhanced photosynthetic rates and growth are maintained over the life time of the modified trees.  Another possible benefit of these modified trees is that they might help restore damaged land as their roots also grow faster, helping to address soil erosion.  Further details are available on their website : https://www.livingcarbon.com/ A discussion about the value / usefulness of such trees in affecting climate change / carbon sequestration was featured in the BBC program Positive Thinking this week. Effects of climate change. Climate change is associated with extreme weather events, such as flooding, heat waves and prolonged periods of drought.  American scientists at Ohio State University have been looking at the effects of higher temperatures and lower water availability on fungal infection in Austrian pines. They found that within three days of infection (by certain fungi - Diplodia species),  the warmer and drier conditions resulted in  Reduced photosynthesis by the tree Enhanced removal of carbon resources of the tree to the fungus. This means that there are fewer sugars and other metabolites available to the tree for growth (and defence against infection).   It would seem that a warming climate will render many trees more susceptible to invasion by various pathogens.   Full details of this research here.    Stressed out plants. Thale cress or Arabidopsis thaliana is a small flowering plant, that is native to many parts of Europe and Asia.  It is generally viewed as a weed, found by roadsides and on disturbed land. It is an annual that has a short life cycle. Its genome was one of the first to be sequenced. It has become a popular plant in the researching of the biology of flowering, light sensing and understanding the molecular biology of many plant traits, including flower development and light sensing.   Recently it has been used to investigate the stress response to heat, intense sun and drought.  Such stresses result in the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS).  High levels of ROS are lethal but low level of ROS are a signal to the plant to protect itself.  This is done through the photosynetic machinery which generates an ‘alarm molecule’ (MEcPP).  As this molecules accumulates in the plant, it in turn triggers the production of salicylic acid (essentially a form of aspirin).  This helps protect the chloroplast from damage.  Salicyclic acid is involved in many plant systems, notably defence against infection but also germination and stomatal physiology.

Looking around the garden this morning one might be forgiven for thinking that autumn is already here.  Several trees seem to think the short days of autumn have arrived and are preparing to shed their leaves. Certainly the walnut and hazel are of this opinion.  However, other signs indicate that this is not the case, my twenty year old cedar has died, as have several Cryptomerias and other conifers - this despite assiduous trips with the water can.  In fact, the plants are responding to this summer’s weather, a long period without rain (or very little) plus the very hot weather that we have experienced; particularly in the South and South East.  The plants are not reacting to any changes in day length but to drought. Plants detect changes in the photoperiod they experience through their phytochrome system; under normal circumstances their biological clock will tell them when to prepare for winter.   Whilst many well established trees and plants with extensive root systems can withstand a period of drought, younger plants or those in poor or freely draining soil are likely to die.  Such plants simply cannot take up enough water to replace that lost through transpiration; that is, water evaporation through the stomates (pores) in the leaves.    The intensity of the heat this year coupled with the reduced rainfall has affected many plants and trees and it may be some time before we see the full effect of this summer’s weather.  Beech trees suffer more during periods of droughts because they have shallower roots, while oaks reach moisture deeper in the soil and continue to grow.  In the drought of 1976, many beech trees died and survivors often exhibited reduced growth some 40 years on*. Some plants respond to drought stress by bringing forward their reproductive process, so that fruits and seeds are produced early.  This is an attempt to ensure the survival of the species for when conditions are more favourable to growth.  The Woodland Trust, noted for its phenology records, recorded ripe blackberries in late July (lots of reports on its page on Facebook).  Hawthorn, Rowan, Holly and Elder have all been recorded as fruiting earlier this year.  This was true of the filbert in my garden this summer.  This earlier production of fruits and seeds may have ‘knock on’ effects on the wildlife that feed upon them.   Whilst the effects of the extreme weather are obvious in our parks, gardens etc, the effects on rivers and streams are dramatic.   Chalk streams, in particular, have been affected; they are unique habitats.  The River Ver is a chalk stream in Hertfordshire.  The summer has seen large sections of its upper reaches reduced by several kilometres due to the hot weather (and water abstraction).  The effects in and around such streams may be felt for many years as the water levels fall so the habitats for fish, amphibians and invertebrates (such as dragonflies / mayflies) are reduced or lost.  Recolonisation of such drought impacted systems can be slow and prolonged.   An accessible and detailed paper on Beech trees and drought is available here : research gate.net [caption id="attachment_22186" align="alignright" width="300"] Mature Beech on Box Hill, Surrey.[/caption] [caption id="attachment_10575" align="alignleft" width="300"] Mature beech[/caption]

There’s usually a distinct seasonal change around this time of year. Typically, we get a scorching hot July while the kids are at school with their heads down for exams, only for the temperatures to drop and the clouds to set in as soon as they break up for the summer hols. I could almost time the end of the school year by the appearance of this month’s mushroom of focus, as the first heavy summer rains prompt mass flourishings of Pale Brittlestems (Candolleomyces candolleanus), sometimes known as the Crumble Cap, or Common Crumble Cap. Alongside Sulphur Tufts, Fairy Inkcaps, Collared Parachutes, and the (related by common name at least) Trooping Crumble Cap, the sight of this species for me really seems to mark the arrival of the bona-fide mushroom season, just at the point where boredom with rusts, crusts and ascomycetes is beginning to set in.  Except this year is slightly different. We’ve recorded our hottest temperatures of all time in the UK, with the thermometer breaching the 40C mark here in the part of Kent where I’m based, and the past few weeks have been spent awaiting the long overdue summer deluge to bring a climax to the heatwave. But the rains haven’t come. The ground is parched and bare. I literally can’t remember the last time it rained. Pale Brittlestem One would suspect this to be a pretty bad situation for fungi. However the shortening hours of daylight in August and the consequently cooler nights have a positive knock on effect in that dew begins to fall more easily, and in the shady stillness of the woods, first thing in the morning at least, things are relatively cool and damp at ground level. And so while I’ve set out on my recent woodland wanderings with lowered expectations, I was delighted to find just a few days ago that the current drought situation hasn’t put pay to the appearance of this herald of fungal things to come. Yes, the Pale Brittlestems have arrived, and if perchance it does rain before this post goes online, I’d wager there’ll be a whole lot more of them appearing. This commonplace species is so generically mushroom-looking that while it provides quite a challenge to identify for beginners, once you’ve become more familiar with it, you should pretty much recognise it with some ease. In this sense, it is rather like the similarly nondescript Clouded Funnel (Clitocybe nebularis), in that it varies quite dramatically in form and colour throughout its various stages of growth. Pale Brittlestem In terms of habitat, it too is saprobic, growing either singly or in scattered groups on organic debris such as leaf litter, around rotting tree stumps or small bits of buried wood in parks, gardens and, of course, woodlands. When I describe it as common, it is one of those species that I see pretty much every year and have found in a range of different locations. Interestingly, I’ve often found it by entrances to woods or at the side of paths running through them. I recently identified this fungi growing around a hydrangea in someone’s garden. They asked how to get rid of it, but I queried why anyone would want to do that, pointing out that they’re totally harmless by any definition of the word – you could even eat them, if that’s your bag, although probably only the most desperate would bother. By feeding off dead organic material (presumably small twigs in this instance), breaking it down and returning the carbon and other nutrients to the soil, it can only be a good thing for the garden. Lets look at the hallmarks of this particular little mushroom. First of all, it should come as little surprise to learn that the Pale Brittlestem has a brittle stem (or rather stipe, in mycological parlance). Bend it, and it will snap. Run your fingernail along its edge to cut it lengthwise and you’ll notice it is hollow, like a dandelion stalk. It also bares a distinctive pattern that I always find useful for identification, looking a little like a pure white scurfy snakeskin. This pattern is formed by the remnants of the veil, or velum – the membrane from inside which the immature fruit body develops in and emerges from. Occasionally, this stem has a ring around it, although I’ve never seen this myself. Pale Brittlestem The flesh in the cap is also thin and delicate and breaks easily. The gills underneath are relatively tightly packed and start out white, but like a supermarket mushroom, darken as the spores mature within them through pinks and greys to a dark brown. Lay the cap on a white piece of paper for a few hours and you’ll get a dark brown spore print. The Pale Brittlestem is a member of the Psathyrellaceae “family of dark-spored agarics that generally have rather soft, fragile fruiting bodies”, which also include the coprinoids, or inkcaps, such as the Shaggy Inkcap. However, another key identification feature here is that the gills don’t auto-digest and melt away into a black ooze like those of these species. Pale Brittlestem The cap starts out dome-shaped and golden-brown in colour and flattens out to a diameter within the range of 3-6cm when fully expanded, while also fading to a pale near white colour like your typical shop-bought button mushroom but with slight yellow tinges. That’s right – the golden-brown dome-shaped mushroom that may be sitting amongst or not far from the group of thin-flesh mushroom-coloured and mushroom-shaped mushrooms is most likely the same mushroom. Geoffrey Kibby, in his Mushrooms and Toadstools of Britain and Europe vol 3 writes that when young, they can also be “reddish ochre”, and to further confuse matters, the caps are also hygrophanous – which means they range dramatically in colour and darkness depending on how wet or dry they are, and sometimes two tones can be present in the same cap. This cap does however present some clues amongst the confusion, mainly in the form of the tatty fringes around the margin, which like the patterns on the stipe are the remnants of the velum and also appear as flecks across the cap’s upper surface. I had a vague idea in my mind that these fringes were what gave this mushroom it’s latin name, Candolleomyces candolleanus – that it had something to do with candlewick bedspreads or lampshades or suchlike. It turns out, however, that there is not even the remotest of links, and that this species was named in honour of the Swiss botanist Augustin Pyramus de Candolle (1778-1841). Pale Brittlestem While we are on the subject of Latin names, it is worth pointing out that until very recently Candolleomyces candolleanus was known as Psathyrella candolleanus – so recently in fact that the encyclopedic Fungi of Temperate Europe (2019) still refers to it by this earlier name, as does its entry on the First Nature website and even that of the British Mycological Society as of this time of writing.  Psathyrella was a sizeable genus that was used to encompass a vast range of the small saprobic mushrooms linked by brittle stipes, dark spores and non-dissolving gills. Many of the Psathyrellas tended to be very difficult to pinpoint down to species level due to the variability of cap shape and colouration depending on their age and environmental humidity on the one hand, and the overlap of these visible features between various different species on the other. They are the type of fungi that amateur foragers might apply the term LBM (“Little Brown Mushroom”) to. Even microscopic inspection of spores and other hidden features revealed the difference between many of the Psathyrellas was often pretty hazy.  As the American mycologist Michael Kuo wrote on MushroomExpert.com in 2011, “the traditional genus “Psathyrella” is headed for some pretty big changes.” DNA analysis has revealed recently that many of those thought closely related are in fact anything but, and the Psathyrella genus has undergone a massive taxonomic overhaul.  Conical Brittlestem (Parasola conopilus) An illustrative example would be the Conical Brittlestem, which also has a hygrophanous cap that can be dark brown and two-toned when fresh or damp, and is noticeably paler when old and dry. The Conical Brittlestem has moved from being Psathyrella conopilus to Parasola conopilus, emphasising how it is by no means as closely related to the Pale Brittlestem as might be assumed from its physical appearance. Just to further confuse matters, Geoffrey Kibby’s entry for Candolleomyces candolleanus describes it as “A species complex yet to be sorted out” – in other words, this species-level identification of the Pale Brittlestem seems to encompasses a range of genetically different organisms that are so similar in terms of observable features that the boundaries between them are very blurred. It is true, just as there are many mushroom species that look so similar to Candolleomyces candolleanus that you’d be forgiven for identifying them as such (the Clustered Brittlestem or Psathyrella multipedata being one such example), the variability of the Pale Brittlestem’s appearance is also marked enough for the potential to confuse it with other species.  Pale Brittlestem Let us leave it to the molecular scientists and the hardcore mycological experts to quibble about the minutiae of Brittlegill taxonomy. I think the Pale Brittlegill provides a wonderful example of an instance where it would be quite forgivable for the average nature lover to ditch the Latin and not to bash ones brains out over more thorough identifications.  If one follows the basic guidelines in this post, I do however think it should be easy to put the name Pale Brittlegill to this common species that you should be seeing a lot more of around now, or at least get somewhere close to an identification. Pale Brittlestem 

The decline in insects numbers, especially pollinators is a cause for concern.  Insect numbers have fallen as natural ecosystems have been lost or disrupted by the expansion of farming and urbanisation, plus the increased use of pesticides and herbicides. The loss of insects not only affects the pollination of many commercially important plants, but also affects the animals and birds that feed upon insects.  So, there are knock on effects throughout food chains and ecosystems. Plantlife has launched a number of initiatives, such as  No Mow May,  Transforming Road Verges Saving Meadows to help offset the decline in insect numbers.  Now work done in Professor Goulson’s laboratory at Sussex Univeristy by Janine Griffiths-Lee (a PhD student) suggests another approach to increasing insect / pollinator levels in urban settings.  Her research has demonstrated that creating a small patch of wild flowers in gardens can go some way to address this fall in insects numbers.    She and colleagues managed to enlist the help of some 150 volunteers distributed across the UK (many were members of the Buzz Club*). Each volunteer set aside a wild flower area  - a mini-meadow (two metres by 2 metres).  Some  of the volunteers then sowed the mini-meadow area with a commercial seed mix of wild flowers, others sowed a seed mix designed / thought to be ‘beneficial to pollinators’. A third group did not receive wild flowers seeds but were asked to set insect traps and record insects in their gardens in the same way as the two ‘wild flower seed groups’. The results were interesting and revealing. The mini-meadows proved to be resource-rich habitats, with an increased numbers of wild bees, more bumblebees, solitary bees and also wasps (when compared to the control group with no wild flower seed sowing).  There were differences in the insect populations for the two groups of seed.  The commercial mix attracted more solitary bees and bumblebees, whereas the ‘designer mix’ of seeds attracted more solitary wasps.  There was no difference in the number of hoverflies that visited the two types of wild flower rich mini-meadows.  Solitary wasps, whilst not pollinators, are important in that they prey on a number of insect pests of fruit and vegetables. Clearly, the planting of small areas in gardens with wild flowers could do much to encourage the numbers and variety of insects / pollinators visiting (or possibly help control the damage done by insects pests).   * The Buzz club is a citizen science initiative.  The UK has a tradition of using the enthusiasm of volunteers to collect data for ecology research.  The Buzz Club projects are focused on gardens - see here.  Membership of the Club is free and the research projects are generally involve no cost.  You might be asked to supply simple equipment or to cover the cost of sending samples back to the club based at Sussex University. Should you sign up then you will receive : A ‘thank you’ email from the team! Information direct to your inbox of new projects being planned. A newsletter about what your data is telling us.  Professor Goulson has previously written a blog about bumblebees for woodlands.co.uk

Veteran trees may be defined by a number of features: age size; condition; history; position. Neither age nor size in themselves define veteran status. These features have to be viewed in relation to typical values for each tree species.  Thus, a one hundred year old birch or willow might be ‘deemed’ a veteran but a one hundred year old oak or yew would be a youngster.  To be termed a veteran, a tree should show some of the following features the trunk should be large (for the species) decay holes in parts of the trunk the trunk may show signs of damage and/or bark loss dead wood in the canopy fungal fruiting bodies often present (from heart rot fungi) epiphytes, such as mosses and lichens are present the tree supports a rich variety of different species the shape or position of the tree is of interest the tree may have cultural or historical interest, some  were used as gallows! Some veterans achieve their status through the management of the tree, such as pollarding or coppicing.  There are thousands of ancient trees in the UK and the Ancient Tree Inventory not only offers a way of finding ancient trees across the country but also you can add details of trees). Veteran trees can be found in many countries, though the may go under different names. In Australia, veteran or ancient trees are often connected with the social, cultural, and legal practices of the aboriginal peoples.  In Italy, an Albero Monumentale (‘a monumental tree’) is defined under National Law [number 10, 14th January 2013]. In Sweden, the oldest oak (Quercus robur) is the Rumskulla Oak , also known as the Kvill Oak. It is found in Kalmar County, Småland.  The name Rumskulla derives from its older form Romfarakulla ( = Rome + travel + hill); the area was a resting place for pilgrims that  to made the journey to Rome. It is one of the largest trees in Scandinavia, being some 14 metres (46 feet) high and with a trunk circumference of 13 metres (43 feet). Its girth is still increasing.  In the severe winter of 1708-09, the crown was was damaged and much lost. The tree is over a thousand years old and was first described in 1772.  The tree is now supported by iron bands and wire.  Like many veterans, its centre is hollowed out and it is covered with mosses.   There are many holes, cracks and crevices.   The Rumskulla Oak is registered as a national natural object of interest, with the Swedish Heritage Board. Thanks to Fredrika for the photos.

The UK has experienced some of the highest temperatures ever recorded in recent weeks, and in some parts of the country this has coincided with very low levels of rainfall.  It was the driest July on record for East Anglia, southeast and southern England, according to provisional statistics from the Met Office.  July was also the first time the UK exceeded temperatures of 40°C: on 19 July during an intense heatwave.   These conditions are not without their effects on wildlife.  Whilst warmth can accelerate plant growth and development, and also speed up insect life cycles, but the recent very high temperatures have significant effects, for example:  Drying of the soil As the soil dries, so earthworms burrow down deeper.  Insects, woodlice, spiders, etc avoid the surface of soil, hiding in litter so birds like song thrushes, robins and blackbirds struggle to find something to eat. Consequently, they are less likely to produce a second brood of chicks. This scarcity of invertebrates also affects ground feeding mammals, like hedgehogs (and badgers in more rural locations). Wetland areas dry out; for example grazing pasture that floods in winter - like the Ouse Washes.  This makes it difficult for birds to find food. Lack of water for plant growth Reduced rainfall and high rates of evaporation from the soil (and plants) mean that there is considerably less water available for plant growth.  The growth of leaves is reduced so that there is less material for caterpillars and other insects to eat.  With fewer leaves , there are also reduced surfaces for butterflies and other insects to lay eggs. High temperatures High temperatures and lack of water can affect many animals (including us). Rivers are running at very low levels and some have more or less disappeared.  DEFRA’s latest assessment of principal salmon rivers, such as the River Test shows that 74% of rivers in England are now ‘at risk’. The Environment Agency has noted the flow rate in the Waveney as 'exceptionally low', while other rivers in East Anglia like the Great Ouse  the  Yare, and the Little Ouse are described  as 'notably low'. The young of birds like swallows and swifts are at risk of fatal overheating (the young and old of various species are often more susceptible to heat stress).  Bumblebees cannot forage at high temperatures. Their bodies are covered with ‘hairy coats’ so they can fly when it is cool; but these become a burden in hot spells.High temperatures also shorten flowering time, and hence the availability of pollen and nectar for pollinators (bees, bumblebees, overflies, butterflies). Wild fires. [caption id="attachment_35352" align="aligncenter" width="650"] Woodland recovering from a fire[/caption] High temperatures increase the risk of wild fires, especially on moorland and heathland.  These fires can spread quickly and over wide areas. Young chicks (e.g. Dartford Warblers), eggs, snakes, lizards, small mammals, dragonflies and butterflies are lost.  Accumulated nutrients and stored carbon are lost from the ecosystems. The site of Springwatch Wild Ken Hill in coastal Norfolk suffered an intense fire during the recent hot spell.  The area is home to turtle doves, the grasshopper warbler and other rare birds.   It is hoped that most escaped but mammals, reptiles and amphibians, late-nesting and juvenile birds may not have fared well.   Grassland and woodland fires have also been reported at various sites across the country.  The UK is not alone in facing these problems, Spain, Italy, Portugal, Greece, France and Germany have all lost many thousands of hectares to wildfires. [caption id="attachment_38699" align="aligncenter" width="700"] what was once was grass .....[/caption]  

It may be that a dead hedge is just that, your once carefully manicured box hedge which has now been ravished by the box moth.  However, in terms of managing your woodland, a dead hedge may have a different meaning. Here, a dead hedge may be a barrier to an area of new planting, it may be a way to ‘persuade’ people to keep to a footpath, or keep away from a pond / stream.   The dead hedge will be made from the bits and pieces that have be culled in clearing and thinning operations within the wood, material that foresters sometimes refer to as ‘lop and top’ and tree surgeons call ‘arisings. It can also include material cut from brambles and climbers such as ivy, honeysuckle and Old Man’s Beard (Clematis). Using natural materials to create barriers (and indeed) a habitat in a woodland is a way of using ‘waste’ in an ecologically sound way.  It saves having to remove trimmings from the site and offers opportunities to ‘top up’ the hedge if desired.  Obviously diseased materials should not be used.   Creating a dead hedge from clippings and trimmings is a way of using natural materials, rather than plastic & other materials that do not readily decompose.  A dead hedge will be an effective barrier for a period of time but it will break down sooner or later as bacteria and fungi break down the woody remains (lignin and cellulose).  The disappearance of the hedge will take time as the branches twigs etc are largely off the ground, so relatively dry and decomposition is facilitated by warmth and wetness. After its initial ‘construction’, the hedge will become part of the woodland, it will be colonised by some plants and it will offer shelter, nesting sites for birds and small mammals, and a ‘home’ to many different invertebrates, such as woodlice, beetles, even certain species of bumblebees.  As the hedge deteriorates, that is, decomposes, so the soil will gain in humus and fertility as the nutrients from the decaying wood etc are released through the detrital food chains.   Another way of using / recycling bits from pruning, clearing etc is by Hugelkultur.   Hugel beds are basically raised beds with a difference - they are filled with rotting wood and other biomass.  They are packed with organic material, nutrients and air pockets. Such beds can be an effective way of creating a productive area for growing fruits and vegetables in your woodland.  There is a woodlands blog about hugelkultur here. Large chunks of wood e.g. sawn up tree trunks can be stacked up in small piles and will over time make an excellent home for many invertebrates but especially xylophagous (wood eating) insects, for example,  saproxylic beetles.  These are beetles that live / eat in dead wood.  In the UK, some 600+ beetle species (from 53 different) families are associated with deadwood. Some feed on the deadwood itself (often with the aid of symbiotic bacteria in their gut), others feed on the fungi that are gradually ‘dissolving’ the wood.  Ants and wasps sometimes make their nests in dead wood.   Using wood to increase the organic content of the soil is good in terms of  carbon sequestration,  improving soil fertility,  water conservation and  productivity.