According to some interpretations of the bible, the Magi or ‘wise men’ travelled from afar bearing gifts of gold, frankincense and myrrh to present to the infant Jesus. The meaning and significance of these gifts has been debated over the years.  One things is clear - all were valuable materials as might have been presented to a king or deity.  Together with spices, frankincense and myrrh moved through ancient trade routes for thousands of years. Gold is a relatively rare element and as such is a precious metal that has been used for jewellery and coinage throughout recorded history.  It is a noble metal, that is it is relatively unreactive, resisting attack by most acids - with the exception of aqua regia, a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids. But what of frankincense and myrrh?   Their origins are not geological as both are plant products.  They come from a group of plants known as the Torchwood family or the Burseraceae.  These are trees or shrubs that have prominent resin ducts / canals.  The resin ducts are tubes, surrounded by cells which produce and secrete a resin into the canals / ducts.  The resin is viscous, ’antiseptic’ and aromatic (often smelling of almonds) and helps to prevents microbial attack (and may deter wood boring insects). Frankincense comes from trees of the genus Boswellia.  Nearly all species of this genus have a bark that produces an aromatic sap but it is B. sacra, (also known as the olibanum tree) that is the main source of frankincense (from its papery, peeling bark).  It is found in Somalia, Yemen and Oman, often growing in relatively inhospitable places.  To obtain the resin, the bark of the tree is cut and resin seeps out and is collected, rather like the tapping of a rubber tree.  The trees do not produce resin until they have reached a certain maturity and over-exploitation of the trees can lead to their death.  The seeds from heavily tapped trees are less likely to germinate than those from trees that have not been ‘drained’ of resin.  All Boswellia species are threatened by habitat loss, over-exploitation, and damage by long horn beetles. What is Frankincense used for?  The word derives from the Old French ‘franc encens’ meaning high quality incense.  Many tonnes of frankincense are traded each year and are used in religious ceremonies, and in the making of perfumes and natural medicines.  In ancient times, the Egyptians used it in the process of mummification, it was added to the body cavities together with natron (a mixture of sodium salts).  The resin has also been used in traditional Chinese medicine for its antibacterial properties and ‘blood moving’ properties. Like Frankincense, myrrh is a resin harvested by wounding the bark of a tree. The bark is a silvery grey, and the twigs are quite spiny (see image).  The resin that exudes is ‘waxy’ and quickly congeals becoming hard and glossy, darkening as it ages. The tree in question is Commiphora myrrha.  It is found in north east Africa - Somalia, Yemen, Eritrea and parts of Saudi Arabia.   The related Commiphora gileadensis, native to Israel, Palestine and Jordan, is also accepted as an alternate source of myrrh.  Myrrh has been used as an antiseptic in mouthwashes, and as a constituent in salve / ointment for skin abrasions, bruises and sprains.  It  has also been used in perfumes and  as a special flavouring for wine.  Like frankincense, it was used in making incense❋ and in the preparation of bodies for mummification / embalming.  In Exodus [30:22-24], God said to Moses to take the best spices and liquid myrrh to make a holy anointing oil.  Anointing oil is still used in certain ceremonies / rituals of both Eastern Orthodox and Western Churches.  In some cultures, it can be used to ‘fumigate’ or refresh a house, giving a warm, earthy and balsamic odour.  It is also said that myrrh is a powerful detoxifier, can lower cholesterol and stabilise blood sugar levels.  Both frankincense and myrrh were extensively traded in ancient and more recent historic times, along with various spices (such as cinnamon, ginger and nutmeg) across the Mediterranean and Arabian peninsula, through to India.  Interestingly, in Ancient Rome, myrrh was priced at five times the cost of frankincense. ❋ Incense can be made from various aromatic plant materials that produce a scent. The actual ingredients used vary by region / area. Apart from frankincense and myrrh, incense may contain cinnamon musk patchouli (from a plant of the mint family) sandalwood. Many thanks to Pixabay for images of frankincense and myrrh  (Leo_65, xbqs42  et al))   .

At this time of year, certain flavourings come to the fore.  Cloves, nutmeg and cinnamon are a bit more prominent than at other times of year.  Though widely used in many cultures and cuisines, they are perhaps more associated with the winter months and Christmas.  Nutmeg comes from a dark leaved, evergreen tree Myristica fragrans.   The tree is indigenous to the Maluku Islands of Indonesia (specifically the Banda Islands), but is now widely grown in Indonesia, Malaysia, Grenada in the Caribbean and Kerala in India. The tree is dioecious, that is to say, there are male and female trees.  Male trees are unproductive in terms of nutmeg harvest, so grafting of cuttings from female trees is often used to produce new plants.  The trees take some twenty years to reach ‘peak production’. The fruit of the tree yields the Nutmeg, and the covering of the seed (the aril) is the source of Mace.  The fruits are gathered up and dried in the sun (for some 6 to 8 weeks).  As the structure dries,  the husk (seed coat) and seed separate.  The seed coat or shell is then broken and the seed picked out; it is separated from the reddish aril, which is the source of mace.  The grinding of the seed yields nutmeg.  Nutmeg has a distinctive, somewhat pungent fragrance and contributes a warm, slightly sweet taste to food.  It is used to flavour mulled wine, punches and cider, added to pumpkin pie and can be used to ‘spice up’ baking, from gingerbread to muffins or chocolate and fruit cakes. Nutmeg oil, which can be produced by a process of steam distillation, is rich in terpenes (like pinene and limonene).  It, too, can be used as a food flavouring or in products like toothpaste !  Mace, from the covering of the seed, has a more delicate flavour (than nutmeg) and may give a saffron-like colour to dishes - which may range from meat recipes to Christmas pudding. Cinnamon is used extensively in many cuisines and even in scented candles.  It is one of the most commonly used spices in Sweden.  Indeed, such is the ‘importance’ of their cinnamon buns - kanelbullar - that the Swedes now have an official Cinnamon Bun Day - on October 4th!  [caption id="attachment_39202" align="aligncenter" width="650"] Cinnamon 'buns'[/caption] Together with other spices such as turmeric, saffron, sumac, and cardamom, cinnamon is widely used in Portuguese, Turkish and Persian Cooking.  The properties of cinnamon come from the chemicals - cinnamaldehyde and eugenol. The cinnamaldehyde is largely responsible for the flavour and aroma of cinnamon,   whilst the eugenol has a pleasant, spicy, clove-like scent.  Cinnamon comes from the inner bark of trees of the genus Cinnamomum,  the trees belong the Laurel family.  They are four main species associated with cinnamon production “ Cinnamomum verum  Cinnamomum burmannii Cinnamomum cassia  Cinnamomum loureiroi C. verum has its origins in Sri Lanka and is sometimes referred to as ‘true cinnamon’, with the material derived from other sources sometimes referred to as “cassia’.  The material derived from the different Cinnamomum species has different physical properties.  Ceylon cinnamon gives a thin inner bark of a light brown colour, with a crumbly texture.  It has a subtle and aromatic flavour. , whereas, Cassia has a stronger, spicy flavour (and is much used in baking).   Most of the world’s production of cinnamon cassia now comes from Indonesia and China.  Cinnamon and cassia are often used interchangeably.  The trees are evergreen, with oval shaped leaves and a thick bark.  When a tree is two years old, it is coppiced.  That is, it is cut back to ground level so that in the following year a number of shoots are produced, which are allowed to grow on for future harvesting.  When cut, the stems have the outer bark is scraped off so that the inner bark can be removed.  It is this material that is rich in the spice.  As it dries, it curls up into rolls or ‘quills’.  Like many spices and metals, cinnamon was extensively traded across the ancient world.  It was utilized as a perfume in rubbing oils and was also used as a fragrance in the mummification / preservation of dead bodies in ancient Egypt.  Nero was said to have burned enormous quantities of the spice / incense at the funeral of his wife (Poppaea).  In recent times, cinnamon rich materials have been investigated for medical uses, specially in relation to type 2 diabetes and blood sugar control. Thanks to Pixabay for images (Emmie_Norfolk and aga2rk)

Looking out of the window as I type this month’s fungi focus, it is difficult to believe that but a few months ago we were at the tail end of a prolonged and intense heatwave and drought. Now as we plunge towards the depths of midwinter, the traditional mushroom hunting season is already well past its peak. Like heat and dryness, most fungi seem to have little tolerance for frost, snow and ice. But there’s no need to be too pessimistic that it’s all over for another year. There’s still plenty of stuff out in the woods and after several years of writing in these blogs about what can be found in any given month, as far as I’m concerned the season is never really over. “Seek and you shall find” is my chosen mantra when I head out with my camera. In fact, I perversely prefer the winter months to the brief but intense height of the season during September to November, a period that yields so many discoveries that photographing and identifying them all can be onerous and overwhelming, and when the forest floor is so dynamic it is difficult to know what species to make the subject of these monthly focusses. Winter is a great time to concentrate on the less showy side of the fungi kingdom; the crusts and the jellies and the other little things you might not notice until you actively start looking. This is the time to persevere with getting that ever-elusive perfect photo of such commonplace species as Candlesnuff Fungi (Xylaria hypoxylon), for example. It is most likely that in the process, while crouched amongst the crisp leaf litter, your eyes will wander and you’ll end up discovering something else you’d might otherwise never have noticed. Candlesnuff With this end-of-year windup for the winter, I decided to focus on a species that has just emerged over the past month that might be lingering a little longer while we wait for Spring. I’ve written before how jellies such as the Yellow Brain fungus and the various other types some refer to as Witches’ Butter manage to resist regular freezing and defrosting and can be found many months after they first emerge. To the list we might also add Jelly Ears and Tripe Fungi, but also another one I’ve not yet covered, which is the Purple Jellydisc (Ascocoryne sarcoides). These can take a variety of forms, from walnut-sized and brain-like to the more discoid example one might expect from its common name. They start emerging mid to late November, when the temperatures first start dropping, growing in clusters on dead deciduous trunks and branches – often beech but certainly not always – as if oozing from the wood. One might assume from the shape and texture that these are closely related to Yellow Brains and Crystal Brains, but whereas these other jellies are basidiomycetes (producing their spores on external structures), Purple Jellydiscs are ascomycetes (with their spores developing internally in sac-like structures called asci) - again, I’ve regularly covered this crucial taxonomic distinction, such as for example in some detail here. I would label the Purple Jellydisc a very common fungi, in that I’ve found it in every woodland I’ve ever spent much time in, although it is not as conspicuous as the other jellies. Yellow Brains, for example, seem to be appear quickly and fully formed, while Purple Jellydiscs seem to emerge small and grow slowly.  Black Witch I’m not entirely sure they are as durable as these other “true” jellies either; I’ve monitored a single growth of Exidia glandulosa, the Black Witches Butter, for a period of almost half a year, watching it dry, inflate, freeze and defrost through the seasons, but I am not entirely sure if I’ve really ever registered Purple Jellydiscs past January. These are also rather drab in the winter light too, more reddy brown than purple, and more opaque than glistening. They are consequently rather difficult to get a decent photo of, although with artificial lighting one gets a better sense of its blanched beetroot hues and jelly baby-like texture. This should all be enough for the casual nature lover to be able to look at a specimen fitting this basic description and to ascribe a name to it. As usually seems to be the case in mycology however, with the two near identical Yellow Brain species proving the point wonderfully, there are a handful of other species in the Ascocoryne genus that look pretty much exactly the same and share similar environmental niches. To prove this rather maddening point, just a few weeks back, I found a group of purplish discs growing in clusters on a fallen beech trunk that looked nothing like any other Purple Jellydiscs I’d ever found before, but they did fit descriptions of Ascocoryne cylichnium, which has the common name of the Budding Jellydisc. First Nature describes this species as “similar but its fruit bodies remain cup shaped rather than merging into a brain-like form.” So far so good, I thought, and if I didn’t have a microscope in my possession, I would have left it at that. But as First Nature also wrote, that “it can only be identified with certainty by microscopic study of the spores, which are much larger than those of Ascocoryne sarcoides”, I decided to dive in for a better look. At this point, I was also informed of the existence of a couple of further species that looked pretty much the same: Ascocoryne solitaria and Ascocoryne inflata. They could only be distinguished from one another and identified with any conviction through close microscopic scrutiny of specific structural details. Needless to say, they don’t have English common names. Anyway, to cut a long and potentially very tedious story short, I did look at my sample under the microscope and it turned out after all to be your bog standard Purple Jellydisc, Ascocoryne sarcoides, after all. I don’t think there’s much more to add at this point beyond a Merry Christmas and Happy New Year to all who have read this far!

The first stage to lino printing is to find inspiration. Christmas is a great time to try this craft as it can be used in Christmas cards or for printing your own wrapping paper. It's important to bear in mind that shapes are paramount with lino cutting and printing, so it's a good idea to look for distinctive shapes with clear edges. You can add in shading or marks after printing if you choose.    Winter is a great time to look for inspiration. I like to look in the woods. While walking, I look for leaf shapes or dried seed heads are my favourite. You can also draw from imagination if you prefer. Leaves like holly are fairly easy to draw with their clear defined points.    When I've collected some specimens I need to transfer them to paper so I can trace the shapes on to the lino. I'm not the best artist so after a few disappointing sketches I came up with another plan. I photocopied the leaves and seedheads by placing them on the glass of the copier and covering them with a sheet of white paper.   Bingo! They came out really well.   [caption id="attachment_39235" align="alignright" width="300"] Seed head[/caption]                   The hemlock seed heads looked a little cluttered which is tricky to create on the lino so I stripped the seeds and tried again. Important to remember some seeds, leaves etc are toxic so you need to be sensible handing them. [caption id="attachment_39246" align="aligncenter" width="675"] Tracing the leaves[/caption] Once I have the copied shapes or drawn the images I trace them onto tracing paper then flip the tracing paper and rub the back to transfer the image on to the lino. If it's not completely clear you can re draw it or draw directly on to the lino. When you have an image that you're happy with it's time to cut.   So, what will you need ? [caption id="attachment_39236" align="aligncenter" width="675"] Cutter with various nibs, plus a roller.[/caption] Lino.  This comes in different levels of density and lots of different sizes. You can purchase a selection to find out which you prefer. I buy from Etsy but there are many other available sources. Tools.  Cutting tools are small, shaped blades that fit into a handle. It takes some trial and error to find out what works for a design so good to have a spare square of lino for making practice cuts. [caption id="attachment_39238" align="aligncenter" width="675"] Cutting a flower shape[/caption] I cut my design or outline into the lino square - remember - what ever you remove will be white on the final print - and cut any detail I want with different blades. This may be trial and error and you can always come back and cut more but, obviously, cannot fill back in. Ink roller.  A small plastic or rubber coated roller, like a mini paint roller. This is the fun bit. Choose your ink colour and put a little ink on a smooth surface. I have an ink tray but you could use an old tile or similar. Roll the roller in the ink then over the design making sure it's well covered them press the lino piece onto paper or card or the other way around - pressing the paper on to the lino and run your fingers over the back to transfer the ink.  [caption id="attachment_39239" align="aligncenter" width="673"] Place ink in the tray and spread[/caption] [caption id="attachment_39240" align="aligncenter" width="675"] Evenly spread the ink on the roller and roll over the shape on the Lino[/caption] Inks   These come in every colour and shade and are water based so you can get proper messy and it all washes off. [caption id="attachment_39237" align="aligncenter" width="675"] Rolling tray and different colours of ink[/caption] It's entirely possible your creation doesn't look exactly how you wanted it to first time. It's a process where you will tailor how you draw, cut and print to get to what you want to achieve.   If you want you can add to a print with another ink colour and fill in different shape with another link cut or overlap a design or colour. There is lots of inspiration on the internet.  Designs can be simple or complicated depending on who is creating.   My daughter enjoyed making a toadstool print which was a simple shape and cut and now plans to make some Christmas cards. [caption id="attachment_39241" align="aligncenter" width="675"] Place lino onto card to print image and allow to dry.[/caption]

In recent times, we have heard much about various initiatives to plant more trees, such as The Queen’s Green Canopy tree planting project to mark the platinum jubilee. Tree planting is part of the government’s plan to mitigate certain aspects of climate change as the trees will absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, which is one of the principal greenhouse gases.  Once absorbed and used in photosynthesis, much of this carbon is then locked away for many years in the form of complex compounds, such as cellulose and lignin. The peak of carbon dioxide uptake by UK woodlands and forests was estimated to be just under 20 million tonnes in 2009.  However, since that time the amount has actually declined.  Many of the conifer plantations that were planted back in the 1970’s and 1980’s have now been felled / harvested, so they no longer contribute to the uptake of carbon dioxide.  It is important that these clear felled areas are replanted and tree cover restored; indeed, in places increased.  Planting rates have risen in Scotland but the performance by the rest of the UK is somewhat limited.  Even with new planting, it takes time for such new forests / woodlands to reach the CO2 absorption levels seen in the 2000’s. Continuous cover forestry (CCF) is a different approach to woodland forest management; it seeks to avoid clear felling and  promotes a mosaic of trees by age and species. There are a number of factors that influence new planting, such as the availability of land.  Using high grade agricultural land for tree planting would affect targets for increased agricultural productivity and domestic food supply.  Also, with climate change and the increasing number of extreme weather events (storms, flooding, drought etc) greater thought needs to be given to risks such as forest fires.  Recent months have demonstrated the ferocity of forest fires in France, California and Portugal.  We cannot assume that the UK will be exempt from such events.  Similarly, we have witnessed powerful storms (such as Storm Arwen) which felled many thousands of trees (and impacted on public services such as electricity and train travel).  The warming climate is also associated with ‘new’ diseases and parasites in our woodlands and forests. New planting needs resilience ‘built in’ to the plan. The Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Committee in its recent report (2021/2) has made a number of important comments in relation to tree planting in the UK, notably : It noted that the Forestry Commission had said that nurseries in the UK will struggle to expand production to deliver the number of young trees required for the Government to achieve its planting ambitions. There is a lack of a sufficiently skilled and large workforce to achieve England’s tree planting ambitions. To meet the Government’s tree planting goals, the UK will need to import seeds and young trees (until domestic capacity increases); and this carries the risk of the introduction of pests and diseases.  

One of the most read blogs is that entitled “Stick and flick, a possible solution to dog mess in woodlands”.  It also has elicited some very detailed comments.  It concerns the problem of dog faeces / poo that is left in woodlands and public spaces.   A NFU  survey in Scotland revealed significant issues associated with irresponsible access, notably livestock worrying by dogs,  the impacts of owners failing to pick up faeces after their pets, but also plastic bag pollution . Whilst, there is no shortage of dog fouling laws in the United Kingdom, the hanging of poo-filled plastic bags from bushes and trees has sadly become commonplace in many areas.   Local authorities in England and Wales receive many thousands of complaints about dog fouling each year. Not only is dog faeces a risk to us in terms of disease (due to bacteria such as E.coli and Campylobacter, plus parasites such as hookworms and roundworms), but it is also a danger to livestock through parasites such as Neospora, which can cause abortion in cattle, and Sarcocystis which affects sheep. Forestry England asks you “Bag and bin your dog's waste. Any public or household waste bin can take bagged dog poo.”  The National Trust has produced a Canine Code, like that displayed at Mottistone Manor, Isle of Wight (see below).  It offers sound advice for wherever you are walking your dog be it a National Trust property or local woodland.

Ancient Trees A recent report has emphasised the importance of protecting and preserving ancient trees.  Ancient (or veteran) oaks can live in excess of a thousand years, as can Yews.  The Bristlecones of California and Nevada may live for some five thousand years ! Such trees represent a massive carbon store.  The carbon dioxide from the atmosphere being locked away for a millennium or five!  Not only are such trees a significant carbon store but they also offer a home or food for many other species - fungi, epiphytes such lichens & mosses, plus larval and adult stages of insects, and a variety of birds and mammals.  As such the are localised centres of diversity that contribute to ecosystem stability.  Not only are these trees ‘hotspots’ for species diversity but they are also centres of mycorrhizal activity and connectivity.  Mycorrhizae represent a symbiosis between fungi and plant. Plants ‘register’ wounding. When we are hurt, our nerves register the pain through the movement of sodium and potassium ions along the nerves.  When a plant is wounded, calcium ions are known to move in response, travelling from cell to cell, and leaf to leaf.  However, it is now known (through research at the John Innes Centre in Norwich) that this is not the first response of the plant to physical injury.  When cells are wounded they release glutamate, a form of glutamic acid (an amino acid).  This travels along the cell wall and activates channels in the cell membranes that then allow the movement of the calcium ions. A bumblebee pathogen. One of parasites of bumblebees is Crithidia bombi.  It is a protozoan (single celled animal) that reproduces in the gut of the bumble bee. When infected with this parasite the foraging behaviour of the bee is impaired, as is its ability to learn.   A colony may also suffer from increased worker mortality.  Now research has shown that floral structure may influence the transmission of this parasite from bee to bee.  The length and shape of the petals seems to be a critical factor.  If the bees ‘crawls’ in a ‘tube’ of petals, then it may leave behind some faeces.  If the bee is infected with the parasite, then it will be present in the faeces.  If the flower is then visited by another bee then it runs the risk of coming in contact with the faeces and being infected with the parasite.  Plants that have flowers with shorter petals / corollas are less likely to have faeces deposited within them, and therefore less likely to pass on the parasite to the visiting bumblebees.