Many natural ecosystems are periodically exposed to fire.  After a fire, there is often reduced competition and increased nutrient availability (from ash etc.).  The plants and flowers that grow after a fire are visited more often by pollinators, such as bees and other insects.  This can result in increased production of fruits and seeds. Bushfires have been part of certain australian ecosystems for thousands of years and some native species are ‘fire adapted’.  They have come to 'rely' on fires as a means of reproduction and / or  dispersal. Whilst no one fire can be attributed to climate change alone, rising temperatures and aridity, lengthening of the ‘fire season’, combined with bursts of extreme ‘fire weather’, all combine to suggest climate change is implicated. As the frequency of fires increases, the possible benefits of fire to such ecosystems / species are being lost. Fire can help with the physical dispersal of seeds from the parent plant.  In some parts of the world, such as South Africa and Australia, fire and / or smoke can be the stimulus for seed dispersal and subsequent germination.  Plants such as some species of Protea, Banksia, certain members of the myrtle family (e.g. some Eucalypts), and some Pines and Sequoias 'make use' of fire to disperse their seeds. Seed dispersal involving fire is termed serotiny.  Many of these plants produce woody fruits or cones in which the seeds are held.  The mechanism underlying seed release varies but can be due to a resin that ‘seals’ the seeds inside the fruit or cone.  The resin ‘melts’ / liquefies on exposure to heat releasing the seed or there may be a structure called a seed separator (as in Banksia).  Serotinous conifers (like lodgepole pine), have mature cones in which the cone scales are naturally sealed shut with resin.   Most of the seeds stay in the canopy until the cones reach 122-140o F  (i.e 50 to 60oC).  At these temperatures, heat / fire  melts the resin and  the cone scales open to expose the seed. The seed can then drop or drift to a burned but cooling ash-rich soil bed. The seeds do well on the burnt soil available to them as the site offers reduced competition, more light, warmth plus the nutrients from the burning of leaves and litter.  Some species align their germination to immediate post-fire conditions - stimulated by chemicals present in the smoke.  The organic compounds karrikins,  products of the degradation of cellulose are  a germination ‘cue’ for some species.  Karrikins are thought to be present on the soil surface after a fire.  When it rains,  the karrikins are 'washed' into the soil, and seeds present in the soil seed bank are then stimulated to germinate. Thanks to Steve Sangster and John Cameron for images of woodland fire.  

The period since WW2 has seen urban areas and, indeed farms, expand across the UK. The number of places where wildlife can thrive has been eroded.  Gardens and lawns have been changed to provide parking for cars, lawns are mowed and ‘weed-killered’, or worst still replaced with artificial grass so there is not a weed in sight.  Fortunately there are now initiatives like No Mow May that promote the growing of wild flowers in lawns and public spaces, like roadsides and verges.  Many common weeds are simply wildflowers by another name. Wild flowers / weeds (like dandelions, ragworts, clovers) are a lifeline for bees and bumblebees - who are facing so many threats [pesticides, habitat loss, invasive species] so adequate food is important. The flowers of these wild flowers / weeds offer food for a wide range of endangered bees, and at times when other resources are limited.  Dandelions, for example, offer an abundant source of nectar and pollen for bees & bumblebees when other options are limited - especially in urban settings. They produce their flowers (and therefore nectar and pollen) from early Spring right through to the onset of Winter. Recent studies have shown that the diet of bees has changed over the years.   In the past, the bees were able to forage and collect pollen and nectar from a wide variety of plants but with the loss of ‘natural’ wild areas their diet is now often dominated by brambles, clover and dandelions.  In the case of dandelions, their simple, open flowers makes for ease of collection.  They are visited by honey bees, bumblebees and carder bees.   Some studies have indicated that dandelion pollen, whilst it is rich in the amino acid proline,  has low levels or lacks certain amino acids (such as valine and isoleucine).  Bees need the same ten essential amino acids as us.  Without a supply of these particular amino acids, the development and growth of bees is impaired, as is their disease resistance and ability to raise the brood.  So, it is important to find ways to offer our pollinators a range of plants / pollen to provide all their essential nutrients. interesting related papers Food for Pollinators: Quantifying the Nectar and Pollen Resources of Urban Flower Meadows: https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0158117 Shifts in honeybee foraging reveal historical changes in floral resources: https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-020-01562-4

Forests, woodlands, trees are vital to life.  They absorb carbon dioxide, they release oxygen, they offer food and shelter to countless species (including us).  The global forests (equatorial to boreal) play an important role in mitigating climate change due to fossil fuel emissions.  However, many forests and their particular tree species are being  threatened by the world’s warming climate.  Recent years have seen catastrophic fires in many parts of the world, from Canada, Siberia, Sweden to Australia. In 2019/20, intense fires caused extensive damage to the Eucalypt forests in Australia.  Eucalypt rich woodland / forest is likely candidate for fire because the leaves of Eucalypts produce volatile and highly combustible oils.  The litter underneath such trees is rich in organic compounds such as phenols, which slow down the microbial breakdown of the dead leaves.   Consequently,  a layer of dry, eminently burnable material builds up. In Eastern Australia, some 40+% of the native eucalypt forests suffered severe canopy damage.   Trees on the west coast of America have also been subject to intense fires.  Their susceptibility to fire has been accentuated by drought across the region.  Analysis of the growth rings of trees, such as the Red Cedar (in areas such as Oregon) show that trees suffered reduced growth in the years prior to their death.  Drought stress increases the probability of attack by bark beetles and pathogens.  In California, many native species such as white fir, red fir and ponderosa pine have died and provided material for the fires that were to follow.  Fires in 2020/21 swept across the region, destroying vast swathes of forest.  The fires were of such an intensity that even Giant Sequoias were killed.   [caption id="attachment_40596" align="aligncenter" width="675"] Forest Fire in Canada[/caption] Sequoias had been thought ‘indestructible’ as they have a thick bark, which protects the inner living tissue, plus their canopy is usually well above the flames on the forest floor.  In the past, the fires burned litter on the ground, removing competitors, and releasing nutrients.  The heat would also open up the cones of the Sequoias releasing their seeds, so young trees could establish. Some of the Sequoias that died in these recent fires had stood for centuries and survived many wildfires.   In the past, the amount of litter / dead material was limited.  Indigenous people managed these forests (reducing the fuel load) to create forage for game animals, so that wildfires were of mild to moderate intensity.  Now, the fires are different - they are intense. There is more material to burn - including the trees that have already died from drought and disease. The fires can now reach into the canopies of the Sequoias. One of the Sequoias that died was the King Arthur tree - the 8th largest giant redwood in the world; it died in the Castle Fire of 2020. The drought driven deaths of many tree species is probably the start of a longer lasting shift in the growing range of the affected trees.  Temperature and water availability are two of the major determinants of the range of a given species.  It is possible that trees may ‘move’ northward and upward (grow at higher elevations).  Trees will begin to ‘die off’ at the edge of their range / lower elevations as drought / warming increases.  Die offs may also affect commercial plantations of species such as Douglas fir.

We had been looking for a wood preferably with a open area for sometime.   We had a look at a few that were not right for us, thinking it was never going to happen.   One day I opened an email and there it was - in September 2022.  Golden Hill Wood, I immediately called Stuart, the area manager, and we arranged to view it.   Well,  it was just perfect and literally five minutes away from our home, so the ball started to roll. It was time for some research on equipment, we got some good advice locally, so a chainsaw, brushcutter, and other equipment was purchased.  Having a walk around with Stuart, taking on some good advice, we then started to work on our new heaven. Golden Hill Wood has some old broadleaf trees but mainly spruce, fur and a few Douglas Firs amongst others.  The wood not been cared for in many years, so I set to taking lower branches off to head height, a few had to be removed including a couple of tactical removals with trees broken half way up, removing the many brambles that had stored from the ground to the canopy in a web like manner.  I found myself pulling brambles from one tree only to see I'm pulling a tree further away as there was so much of it.   Patience is a virtue and I got there.   It is not the end, but everything is now manageable so I have a few hours work and then a chill out. I have a couple of tarpaulin areas which the granddaughters just love and embrace and lend their little hands.   When Roe or Red Deer are about, we have two sets of Buzzards along with Red Kite and. of course, Bunnies.  We spent New Years Eve 2022-23 there and I've made a wild camp under a basher. I'd recommend anyone taking a wood on.  It is so peaceful and calming.