Climate change is upon us.  Heatwaves are becoming more common, resulting in drought and fires, which we have seen in many parts of the world in recent years.  The effect of high temperature on animals [and us] is that the heat pushes the organism beyond its ability to regulate its body temperature, so it loses water and its systems fail. Of course, there are some plants and animals that can survive in extreme temperatures, the cacti and some lizards of the deserts being examples.  The plants have, in most cases, reduced their leaves down to spines and reduced their surface area in other ways.  They also tend to have thick waxy cuticles to reduce the loss of water by transpiration. Apart from causing increased water loss, heat has other effects on plants.  Recent research at the University of California investigated how a ‘heat wave’ affects oil seed  rape - Brassica napus.  Nick Rosenberger and colleagues grew the plants first in greenhouses and then moved them to chambers kept at two different temperatures. One group experienced a temperature of 25oC, whilst the others were exposed to a temperature of 35oC.  The plants were kept at these temperatures for 72 hours after which they were moved back to the greenhouses.  The research team then studied the effects of temperature on the reproductive process.  Reproduction is a complex process, it involves the formation of reproductive structures from petals, through to stamens, ovaries, stigmas not to mention the process of meiosis by which the pollen and ovules are formed.  These processes are vulnerable to external environmental factors. The research time found that :- The higher temperature of 35oC reduced pollen formation.  The anthers produced significantly less pollen compared to the plants that experienced 25oC. The higher temperature affected the development of the pollen tubes.  The structure by which the pollen grain nucleus makes its journey down to the ovule. The number of seeds produced after exposure to heat was reduced substantially by over 80%.   So heat exposure substantially reduced reproductive success, which is important consideration in terms of crop yield, and indeed the continued existence of the species.  Heat waves may have the effect of reducing food security, genetic diversity and, indeed,  biodiversity. Curious fact : The root systems of mature creosote plants  (which grow in Death Valley) are so efficient at absorbing water that nearby seeds cannot get enough water to germinate, this effectively creates ‘dead zones’ around each plant.

The Fungi are a very diverse and ‘strange’ group of organisms, the true fungi are referred to as the Mycota. The Oomycota are fungus-like organisms, but somewhat different and are responsible for diseases like potato blight.   Unlike green plants, fungi do not have any chlorophyll so cannot make sugars and other compounds by photosynthesis. They get their sugars / carbohydrates through being  saprobes (saprophytes),  parasites, or sometimes  symbionts. Many soil fungi are saprobes, that is, they ‘feed’ on the dead leaves, bits of bark, dead bodies of insects and other animals that end up in the soil. Fungal saprobes, together with bacteria and other organisms, use enzymes to break down the complex chemicals in the dead and decaying remains, to release simpler compounds such as sugars and amino acids. These are then used for the growth and development of the fungi. Fungal parasites obtain their sugars and amino acids by feeding on another living organism (the host). Examples of parasitic fungi include  mildews,  ergot of rye, Athlete’s foot  bracket fungi, Aspergillosis (lung disease)   ‘rusts’ on wheat and hollyhocks Thrush As can be seen from the list above, the host can be us. By definition, parasitic associations do not benefit the host. Some fungi enter into an association with another living organism in which both partners benefit; this is symbiosis. Lichens are examples of symbiotic associations between various types of algae and fungi. For more information on the nature of lichens, see the WoodlandsTV film.   [embed]https://youtu.be/YnyxpY8V-GI?si=InEq06izX88VJJnI[/embed] Mycorrhizae are symbiotic associations between fungi and the roots of certain trees and other plants. The microscopic, tube-like fungal threads (hyphae) form a network around the roots of a tree.  They take various carbohydrate compounds from the tree that it has made through photosynthesis.   However, the transfer is not one way; the tree benefits as it gains mineral nutrients from the extensive fungal network of hyphae that ramify through the soil – absorbing a variety of minerals. As a result of their enhanced mineral nutrition, mycorrhizal plants often show better growth and development when compared to non-mycorrhizal ones (of the same species).    [embed]https://youtu.be/I0Buzzhv40E?si=sZBjTRt5rr0Cbdid[/embed] Interestingly, it is thought that the invasive Rhododendron ponticum gains an advantage though it’s mycorrhizal associations. In nutrient poor acidic soils they may ‘starve’ competing plants of vital nutrient requirements.  It also has the ability to poison the soil for others (a phenomenon known as allelopathy}.   It is thought that ancient / veteran trees such as Oak in the UK, or the Bristlecones in the States have well developed and diverse mycorrhizal systems. At the other end of scale in terms of size are orchids.  Orchids produce seeds that are so small [(0.35mm to 1.50mm long] that they contain no nutrition to sustain the germinating seedling. Instead, the seeds must gain the energy to grow from a fungal symbiont.  The cells of the seed are actually penetrated by the fungus.  Recent research on the common spotted orchid by Professor Field at the University of Sheffield suggests that the fungi supplying the nutrients may be connected to parent plants. This may explain why orchids are often found in clumps - despite the seeds being wind dispersed. The idea that mycelial networks may allow communication between trees over a large area has received much attention recently - the wood wide web.     The book “Finding the mother tree” by Suzanne Simard “proposed that trees help each other out by dispatching resources and warning signals through fungal networks in the soil”. The idea was further promulgated in a TED talk. However, a review of relevant research papers / literature by Justine Karst, University of Alberta (and others) suggests that the claims are based on limited evidence and that further research is needed. Vanilla is made from the fermented fruits (‘pods’) of the vanilla orchid (Vanilla planifolia).  

The tawny owl, sometimes called the brown owl, is found in woodlands across Europe. The barn owl is more likely to be found in open country such as farmland or grassland. Woodlands TV has recently produced a film abut encouraging owls in a woodland, interviewing Richard Lloyd Evans of Project Nestbox. The film "How to Encourage Owls to Your Woodland" can be seen below, or visit the Woodlands TV channel on You Tube.. Both owl species are birds of prey that hunt at night. They mainly hunt for rodents, though they are also known to prey on bats.   Interestingly, some bats [like the greater mouse eared bat] when captured in a mist net, make a buzzing sound - reminiscent of bees and wasps.  Researchers wondered if this was a defence mechanism - a form of batesian mimicry, where the prey animal resembles another species that is dangerous or distasteful in order to avoid being eaten.  The research team recorded the buzzing sounds of different species of bee, wasp and hornet.  They exposed these recordings to owls in a wild life rehabilitation centre.  When the recordings were played the owls moved away from the speakers. So perhaps, bat buzzing startles an owl and makes the bat less likely to be eaten. In contrast, when the social calls of bats were played, the owls moved towards the sounds, perhaps thinking of a meal!.   When owls capture something like a vole, it is swallowed whole.  Later, the indigestible parts (the bones and fur) are regurgitated as a pellet.  Pellets may be found under trees used for roosting or nesting. When the pellets are opened up, they reveal very small bones but an intact skull may be found.  Rodents are not the only prey, especially when the owls have young to feed.  Young rabbits, small birds, earthworms and beetles may form part of the diet.  Smaller and less powerful owls [for example, the little owl and the long-eared owl] generally cannot co-exist alongside the stronger / bigger tawny owls, indeed they may take them as prey. The best time to see an owl is generally at dawn or dusk. [embed]https://youtu.be/aU_3nqdMGrI?si=j3wFUJpXDC6H3n-5[/embed] Curious fact : the owl has often been seen as an omen of bad luck : Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar. "And yesterday the bird of night did sit  Even at noon-day upon the market-place Hooting and shrieking.”  and Japan has emerged as the largest importer of live owls globally, with these iconic birds becoming increasingly popular as pets and featuring prominently in animal cafés  

In her first budget as Chancellor, Rachel Reeves introduced a series of tax adjustments intended to raise additional revenue. While the headline measure was an increase in employers’ National Insurance contributions, two other changes have a more direct impact on woodland and forestry owners: a rise in Capital Gains Tax (CGT) and a reduction in Agricultural Property Relief (APR). Capital Gains Tax: Higher Rates, Immediate Impact The increase in CGT, from 20% to 24%, is likely to influence woodland sales and ownership decisions. Unlike agricultural land, CGT on woodlands applies only to the increase in land value, not the timber growing on it. This distinction benefits woodland owners by allowing them to potentially reduce their CGT liability, provided they obtain valuations for the timber at the time of purchase and sale. However, the higher rate may discourage woodland sales, as owners now face a larger tax bill. With the effect of the rate increase being immediate, many owners may choose to hold onto their woodlands for longer, which could have an indirect impact on the supply and demand of land suitable for forestry. Agricultural Property Relief: Tightening Inheritance Tax Relief Agricultural Property Relief, or APR, is a longstanding relief mechanism that exempts certain landowners from Inheritance Tax (IHT) if the land is classified as agricultural. While it might not seem relevant to forestry, commercially managed woodlands qualify under APR, allowing woodland owners to reduce their IHT burden, often to zero. However, Reeves’ budget has placed new limits on this relief. Under the new rules, commercially managed woodlands valued up to £1 million will still benefit from IHT relief. However, for estates exceeding this value, the IHT exemption is now capped, with any value over £1 million taxed at a reduced rate of 20% rather than the usual 40%. While the cap still offers a significant tax advantage, the change is a blow to larger woodland estates, many of which previously enjoyed full exemption. How Big Landowners are Affected This shift in APR has sparked a backlash among prominent landowners. Jeremy Clarkson, known for his 1,000-acre farm, and James Dyson, who owns roughly 36,000 acres, are among those likely to be impacted. For estates of this scale, even at the reduced IHT rate, tax liabilities could amount to millions: roughly £2 million for Clarkson and up to £72 million for Dyson. However, the budget changes leave room for maneuver. Landowners can avoid these new IHT liabilities by transferring land to their heirs well in advance of their passing, with a minimum of seven years required to ensure these assets fall outside of IHT calculations. Smaller Woodland Owners: Minimal Impact For smaller woodland owners, the impact of this budget is limited. Estates under £1 million in value will retain full APR benefits, and as long as their woodlands are commercially managed—whether by having a management plan or demonstrating some level of timber income—the IHT relief will remain. Timber income remains tax-free, and woodlands are still exempt from business rates, leaving smaller owners largely untouched by the budget changes. Final Thoughts While the budget introduces challenges for some, particularly larger landowners, smaller woodland owners who manage their land commercially are less affected. The Chancellor's adjustments aim to close gaps that previously benefited wealthy estates while preserving essential reliefs for those managing woodlands as smaller, income-generating enterprises. As the dust settles, these changes may encourage long-term holding strategies among larger estates, potentially reshaping the landscape of woodland ownership and management in the UK.

Around the western coast of Britain, there are some rare and beautiful woodlands sometimes referred to as "temperate rainforest” or “Atlantic woodlands’.  There are such woodlands in North Wales, rich in ancient oaks and birch. They are ancient woodlands.  Such woodlands have little value in terms of timber but contribute massively to biological diversity - the trees are covered with different moss, liverwort and lichen species, underneath there is a ‘carpet’ of bilberries and varied ferns.  These woods have developed as a result of the influence of the  Gulf Stream.    This keeps the area warm but also wet,  the incoming air is also ‘clean’, creating woodlands unlike others in Britain.  Such woods have a damp and humid feel  and this dampness encourages mosses, liverworts, lichens and fungi. They are to be found on the rough bark of oak, the smooth bark of hazel, and covering rocks.  When one plant grows on another, it is termed an epiphyte. The tree canopy helps to ‘lock in’ the moisture. These epiphytes are discussed in some detail by April Windle of the British Lichen Society in a recent WoodlandsTV film on Temperate Woodlands, which can be viewed below. [embed]https://youtu.be/lO1H_iFFZJY?si=k0-UPv0DIsMJpwRs[/embed] The damp and humid conditions are also helped by the streams and waterfalls in these woods, plus the abundance of the epiphytes ensures that there is constant evaporation. The difficult access and rugged terrain of some of these woodlands may have helped them remain unchanged for centuries, probably dating back to the last ice age. Temperate rainforest must once have covered the Atlantic fringe of Western Europe, ranging from North West Scotland all the way down to the Iberian Peninsula.  Temperate rainforest is biodiverse, home to species not found anywhere else in the world.  Bats find a home here, such as the greater and lesser horseshoe bats, where they feed upon the rich source of invertebrates that thrive in these woodlands. The challenge for an owner of such a woodland is how to protect and manage it. It is not just a case of leaving them alone.  Winter grazing controls the bramble and holly, this helps protect the mosses and lichens, ensuring natural regeneration can occur.  If bramble and other botanical thugs gain an upper hand, then the mosses etc will be shaded out.  Tree seedlings would also struggle to establish themselves.  The intensity / frequency of grazing is critical, Natural Resources Wales (NRW) suggests one sheep per hectare for the winter months.  Ponies can be used for such grazing but they need more management than sheep.  The range of Woodlands TV films can be seen on the Woodlands TV channel on You Tube : https://www.youtube.com/@WOODLANDSTV  

I have been collecting birch sap for many years. It is such a remarkable gift from nature. It has many health-giving properties. And is incredibly versatile. Prior to buying our woodland, which is listed in the ancient tree register as a birch coppice, I would ask wood owners permission to tap their trees, generally well received but sometimes a bit inconvenient. Process It's a fairly straightforward process. The sap rises once a year, generally the last two weeks in March. Normally from the 16th here in the north-east of Scotland. The kit you would need is a cordless drill, an 11/16 bit, plastic tubing the same size (needs to be a tight fit), food grade plastic container (especially if a distance from your car, needs to have a small aperture to prevent beasties getting in but with enough room to breath. the demijohn has ideal size aperture) or glass demijohn. March 16th comes round surprisingly quick! Choosing a tree is a bit hit and miss, although over the years I seem to have developed a bit of a skill in choosing good ones.  Generally I would say mature trees around 8 inches diameter, preferably well away from areas where pesticide is in use and the tree is in good shape. I have previously used trees with witches broom (the tree has been infected with a fungal, viral and occasionally insect activity) and found the tree to be witches broom free the following year. This is not a scientifically proven theory, just from personal observation. Depending on the size of the container, I have used water cooler containers (I found out that they are single-use plastic so most companies that have them are quite happy to give them away), they have the perfect aperture and even though they hold three to four gallons, the weight of the container adds little to the burden, I normally drill 5 or 6 inches above the top of the container. You should aim to drill through the bark; I give it around an inch (2.54 cm in new money), at right angle. Push in the plastic tube, which should be 8-10 inches (you do the maths) long, and the other end into your container, it should start dripping immediately. leave it overnight and check, if using larger containers leave for two or three days. The flow varies, but from a good tree you could expect around a gallon a day. Preparation  You will have a 3-5 day window to use it before it goes cloudy, once cloudy use to water the garden so its not entirely lost. If wine is your thing it is very simple with the sap, sugar and yeast, makes a very palatable result and will keep for at least a year. If you prefer non-alcohol, it can make a delicious cordial - it also preserves it. If you are happy with lots of boiling to reduce it to a creamy balm/moisturiser. There are plenty of recipes on the web for these. These options preserve many of the saps health giving properties. Hope that will do, chaga should also have a wee space, which will grow on birch too and has fantastic health giving properties. Author: Ron (wood owner near Aberdeen)