Walking through a woodland you may see an ash tree or beech tree with black blobs on it.  The black blobs are often on dead branches or on branches that have fallen from the tree. These blobs have various names from coal fungus to cramp balls* or King Alfred's cakes. Like so many things in woodlands, once you know to look for these, you might see them quite often. These black lumps are usually hard, semi-spherical and about 3-4 cm in diameter.  They are the fruiting / reproductive bodies of a fungus, which finds a home in the dead wood of the tree.   The scientific name is Daldinia concentrica.  The blobs are pinkish brown colour when first formed but darken with age and may become somewhat shiny. It is said that King Alfred, when in hiding from the Danes, once allow some cakes to burn by failing to take them out of the oven. These fungal bodies, which look as if they have been burned, are a reminder of his inattention and hence are nicknamed “King Alfred’s Cakes”.  The fruiting bodies can be very useful for lighting fires because the inner ‘flesh’, once dried out, can be easily lit from a “firesteel”.  This is an artificial flint which creates a spark for starting fires, much used by ‘bushcraft people’.  A spark or two will ignite the dried flesh of the fungus.  Though this material burns slowly [like a barbecue briquette], once it has been lit one can transfer the glowing part to a ‘ball’ of tinder (for example, dried goosegrass) and get a fire started. [caption id="attachment_15473" align="alignleft" width="300"] Internal concentric rings of the fungus[/caption] Now WoodlandsTV has produced a film about these interesting ‘cakes’ and how to use them to make a fire.  Matt Clarke demonstrates how to start a fire using a small piece of this dry fungus and some dried vegetation. .  This can viewed either here on the woodlands web site or on YouTube :  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5ulGcEHN-k0.          it was believed that carrying the fungus would protect people from attacks of cramp.

Insect pollinators are currently in decline.  This is, in part, due to the loss of habitats and foraging resources for pollen and nectar.  Pesticides, like the neonicotinoids, don’t help. Lawns and pollinators. “No mow May” has been promoted by Plantlife to  provide a feast for pollinators,  tackle pollution,  reduce urban heat extremes, and  lock away atmospheric carbon Lawns in gardens, parks, recreation grounds etc. represent a significant proportion of green space in cities, towns and villages. If these spaces and suburban lawns are managed with pollinators in mind, then they could become an important source of foraging resources.  Now, there is evidence accumulating that this is the case.  A  recent study used the lawns at Ministry of Justice prison and court sites.   Each site contained four patches,  A patch mown as normal every two weeks - the control  A patch mown every 4 weeks A patch mown every 6 weeks A patch mown every 12 weeks Weekly surveys of pollinators and flowering plants were made throughout June to late August. Butterflies, bees, bumblebees, hoverflies and beetles were recorded as pollinators.   The patches that were mowed less frequently (6 and 12 weeks) had many more pollinators [in fact 170% higher than the 2 week patch], and more flowers.  The most common plants recorded included selfheal, daisy, dandelion, creeping buttercup, and white clover.  Apart from the increase in biodiversity, the patches were ‘visually pleasant’, contributing to the wellbeing of staff / prisoners and saved on lawnmower fuel (cost). Details of the study : https://conservationevidencejournal.com/reference/pdf/12801 Farms and Pollinators. Farms and their crops, such as clover and oil seed rape, can offer a rich supply of pollen and nectar to pollinators.    The ‘richness’ of this supply can draw pollinators away from more natural areas.  However, the pollinators can go from ‘feast to famine’, when the crop has finished flowering.   A Swedish study has followed the behaviour of farmland pollinators after clover flowering.  They found that if natural areas were available after the flowering of the clover, then pollinators [like different bumble bee species] became more selective in their foraging.  This reduces the intensity of competition between the various pollinator species.  Areas of natural vegetation on farmland are therefore important in helping pollinators adapt after crops (such as clover) have finished flowering. [caption id="attachment_33904" align="aligncenter" width="650"] Oilseed rape[/caption] https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167880924005735?via=ihub Gardens and pollinators. A study In the Boston area of the US has revealed that small gardens with a diverse range of plants are important to pollinators.  The researchers first used Google Street View to identify and categorise some 86,000 front gardens (or yards, in their terminology) across the area - ranging from lawns to diverse flower gardens. They then visited 500+ of these gardens when the plants were flowering [in 2021], identifying and documenting the plants in each.   The found that : Whilst the higher income areas tended to have more cultivated flower gardens, these gardens were home fewer wild flower (weed) species. Small gardens often had the richest diversity of plants in flower as compared to those with lawns. The authors of the study conclude “Dense urban areas are a promising target for pollinator conservation.” Detail of this study can be found here : https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0169204624002706?via=ihub  

City temperatures are rising across the Earth.  Heat stress causes illness and even death. Between March and June last year, India experienced record-breaking temperatures, with 37 cities surpassing 45oC. Hundreds of people died from heat death and over 40,000 heatstroke cases in 17 states were recorded.  Increasing urban temperatures also mean greater use of air conditioning (and associated energy use).  In an attempt to mitigate these rising temperatures, many cities have implemented tree planting programmes, e.g. One Million Tree campaigns. During the day, trees cool cities by: Blocking the sunlight from reaching certain areas The loss of water vapour (transpiration) via their stomates - tiny pores on the underside of leaves Changing the flow of air in and around trees and buildings. These are the positive aspects of trees in cities, but there can be a downside to their presence. The heat build-up  stored in roads and buildings during the day can irradiate back into the atmosphere at night, but it can be ‘trapped’ by a dense leaf tree canopy. Cambridge researchers have now analysed the results of some 182 recent studies of trees in different cities and countries / climates, and have reported that : Urban trees can result in an air temperature reduction of some 12oC as experienced at the pedestrian level Trees reduced the peak monthly temperatures in most of the cities studied The cooling effect varied significantly, according to the tree species present, the urban layout and the climate the trees experience. Seemingly city trees exert a greater cooling effect in hot and dry climates, and less in hot and humid climates.  For example, in tropical rainforest climates [which experience very high humidity] then the day time cooling effect may be as low as 2oC, and the warming effect at night +0.8oC.  The study also noted that cities with an ‘open’ urban layout with a mix of evergreen and deciduous trees (of different sizes) were more likely to experience a good cooling effect.  However, in cities with a dense or compact layout, such as Cairo or Dubai, planting mainly evergreen species was found to be more effective. The study concludes that whilst urban planners need to provide more green space in cities,  they must also carefully consider the ‘mix’ of trees that are planted.  The study also emphasises that trees alone will not provide a solution to rising temperatures, but the use of solar shading and reflective materials will play a part, as will the nature and structure of the urban layout. Full details of this study can be found here :  https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-024-01908-4  

Loss of nitrogen fixing species. Some plants can ‘fix’ atmospheric nitrogen.  That is they can take nitrogen from the air and use it to make complex nitrogen-containing organic compounds (such as amino acids / proteins).  This fixation of nitrogen is due to the presence of symbiotic bacteria in root nodules.  Gardeners often make use of ‘nitrogen fixers’, such clover, peas and beans to augment soil fertility. A recent study has investigated the changes in the makeup of the flora in European forests (over several decades) from 1940 to 2019.  What they found was that the proportion of nitrogen fixing plants has declined.  The changes did not seem correspond to any changes in temperature  or aridity / rainfall during the time period, but to nitrogen accumulation in the environment.  When nitrogen levels are low, nitrogen fixing plants have an advantage, but when nitrogen levels increase their advantage over other plants is lost. Nitrogen compounds in the soil can result from the intensive use of fertilisers on nearby agricultural land or atmospheric deposition of various pollutants.  Nitrogen levels have increased tenfold since the start date of the surveys.  This loss of nitrogen fixing plants might, in the long term, result in a loss of ecosystem resilience. For further info - visit https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/sciadv.adp7953 The great green wall project. There are a number of large scale tree planting projects, many associated with offsetting global warming.  The great green wall aims to grow a belt of trees some 8000 km in length, and 15 km wide in the Sahara.  The planned route supported trees in the past.  The aim is to ‘stabilise’ the desert, limiting further expansion into the Sahel, as the tree roots help to stabilise the soil, limiting erosion.  Desertification is associated with drought and overgrazing.  The idea of such a barrier was taken up and approved by countries south of the Sahara in 2002, during a special summit.  The trees selected are drought resistant species, that also serve to fertilise the soil and contribute fruits, fodder and fuel wood for local communities. Though millions of trees have been planted, the project needs more funding if it is to succeed. Further details about the great green wall can be found here and here. Dealing with drought ? [caption id="attachment_35526" align="alignleft" width="300"] drought[/caption] Drought is a problem not only for woodlands but also for crops, resulting in substantial food loss across the globe.  The damage to crops is likely to increase as fresh water availability declines.  During drought, the availability of water in the topsoil decreases, leaving water only accessible in the  deeper subsoil.  Plants seek water through their roots and whilst roots generally grow downwards, they also tend to spread outwards to form a network. So, if the roots are mainly located in the upper layer of the soil, they may not be able to absorb water as the soil dries.   Now, research at the University of Nottingham has found that the plant growth regulator abscisic acid plays a critical role in a plant’s response to drought.  The abscisic acid  promotes the production of another growth regulator - auxin.  The two enhance the plant’s geotropic response* - so that the roots permeate deeper into the soil in search of water. Full details in the research paper here : https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960982224016439?dgcid=coauthor * Geotropism is a plant’s response to gravity.

Woodlands TV has just released another film, which discusses the pros and cons of tree planting in an area, as opposed to allowing natural regeneration.  Many years ago, Kenneth Mellanby [Director of a Research Station near Huntingdon] thought that it would be interesting to watch what happened to a barley field if it was left to its own devices.  The 4 acre field was ploughed for a final time in 1961 and then ‘abandoned’. The field sat next to an area of ancient woodland - Monks Wood. The changes in the field were monitored in succeeding years and eventually becoming known as the Monks Wood Wilderness Project.   In the first 10 to 15 years, a thorny scrubland developed with hawthorn and bramble.  Birds were attracted by their fruits and berries.  The birds dispersed the seeds of the fruits across the plot, and also brought in seeds from other areas (such as the adjacent woodland).  The bramble and hawthorn scrub afforded protection from the wind and herbivores [rabbits, deer etc] for young, delicate tree seedlings.  Wind blown seeds arrived in the area, such as ash and field maple.  Other tree seeds were deposited by birds, Oak began to grow.  Acorns were probably carried in by Jays, who bury them as a winter food store.  An acorn is a rich food source - containing fat, carbohydrates, proteins and micronutrients.  A single jay can scatter many hundreds of acorns each year.  They store more than they need, so some will germinate and grow on to saplings.  Whilst many different birds spread tree and shrub seeds, jays have been known to carry acorns significant distances and probably contributed to the northward spread of the Oak as the glaciers of the last Ice Age retreated. A mature oak tree can provide food and / or a home for many species of animals, plants and fungi. The former barley field has been monitored over the decades, and by 2014 it had become an oak woodland.  This despite the usual depredations of Rabbits, Hares, Muntjac Deer and Roe Deer which have been present at various times over the years.  So given time, former agricultural land can revert (rewind) to mixed deciduous woodland with a diverse collection of plants and animals.  For further details of Monks Wood - visit https://www.naturewalkswithcarol.com/monks-wood-nature-reserve.html The woodlands TV film features ecologist Connor McKinnie who highlights key factors to consider when planning woodland creation, such as tree protection methods, planting pattern, and species. This is the second film with Connor, exploring aspects of rewilding.  The first film is presented below : [embed]https://youtu.be/HZNX9hTzQaU?si=-Ivv4aziPzi4a3cA[/embed] The latest film may be viewed on YouTube by following this link : https://youtu.be/Qx7uiOlGjFY

The Lambir Hills is a national park on the island of Borneo.  It is a small park composed largely of mixed dipterocarp forest, with some small areas of 'kerangas' (heath forest). The forest is monitored and biologists previously recorded  237 species of birds,  64 species of mammals,  46 species of reptiles and  20 species of frogs 1175 different species of tree in the national park.  But now, large mammals (e.g. gibbons and sun bear) are absent or very rare due in part to the small size of the forest but also the impact of illegal hunting.  The most recent surveys failed to find many of the park's resident birds and mammals. As a result of the loss of these species, the make up of the forest has changed markedly in the matter of a few decades. Whilst there are now more trees, with lots of saplings, the variety of trees has declined, particularly of those tree species that rely on animals to disperse their fruits / seeds. The seeds are ingested and pass through the gut of birds and mammals, and finally expelled with a small amount of ‘fertiliser’.  The loss of seed dispersers is having a significant effect on the composition / make up of the forest. There is concern that this sad tale is being played out across the forests and woodlands of Europe.  Seed dispersal is essential in maintaining the biodiversity of woodlands and forests.  Many European species of plants and trees are dependent on animals / birds for the dispersal of their seeds, and it is known that the numbers of certain animals and bird are in decline.  The dispersal of seeds is increasingly important as the landscape becomes increasingly fragmented (due to agriculture / roads, urban expansion species may need to extend their range as a result of climate change (fires, drought etc). But which animal / bird disperses which plant seed / fruit?  There are thousands of plant species and hundred of different animals that might act as dispersers (even ants).  Sara Mendes at the University of Coimbra has started on this mammoth task.   She has identified nearly 600 species that have adaptations for animal dispersal (such as flesh fruit), and nearly 400 animals that ‘transport’ such seeds.  Some of the dispersers eat more than one type of fruit, so the number of interactions is legion.  However, sadly many of the seed dispersing animals / birds are dwindling in numbers or rated as threatened by the IUCN.  For example, the garden warbler (a migratory species) is known to spread the seeds of some sixty different plants but its numbers are in decline.  The redwing is another migratory bird, but which is amber listed. Another worrying feature is that many plant have five or fewer animals / birds to disperse their seeds.  Unfortunately, in many cases, we do not know which disperser species are important to which plant species, or whether another bird or animal could take on the role. Dipterocarps :  a family (Dipterocarpaceae) of tall, hardwood, tropical trees mainly found in southeastern Asia . They have a 2-winged fruit and are a valuable source of  timber, aromatic oils, and resins.

For many, the Christmas tree is an essential part of the celebrations.  Selecting your tree from a local garden centre or a woodland (that grows and sells trees by the thousand)  then decorating it and surrounding it with presents, is part and parcel of the festivities.  But when did these activities start ? Winter celebrations date back many centuries and many are associated with the winter solstice, which marks the shortest day and longest night (in northern latitudes).  It marked the time when the sun’s 'strength' would begin to return - as day length begins to increase. As part of such celebrations, people would bring greenery (usually evergreen material) indoors - symbolic of warmer times to come when crops could be grown.  Such celebrations were widespread across Northern Europe, and these traditions continued even as Christianity spread .   However, there were some who regarded the celebration of Christmas and its associated decorations as sacrilegious. In the UK, during the Commonwealth period under Oliver Cromwell, an outright ban on celebrating Christmas was issued in June 1647.  Parliament passed an ordinance banning Christmas, Easter and Whitsun festivities, services and celebrations. This included festivities at home, and there were fines for non-compliance.   In the United States, some States like Massachusetts, also fined people who celebrated Christmas.  However, many German people who migrated to “the New World” in the 18th century, carried their Christmas traditions with them, which included displaying and decorating Christmas trees. Christmas trees gradually gained in popularity.  In the UK, the adoption of the Christmas tree as part of the seasonal celebrations by Queen Victoria and her husband [Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha] was featured in the London Illustrated News.   This had an image of the Queen and her family decorating a Christmas tree.  The wealthier elements of Victorian society followed the example of the Royal Family. The Christmas tree is invariably an evergreen tree but it can take several forms.  A variety of conifers are sold as Christmas trees, for example, the Norway Spruce Picea abies Silver Fir Abies alba Nordmann  Fir Abies normanniana Scots Pine Pinus sylvestris and in North America, the Douglas Fir Pseudotuga menziesii  and Balsam Fir Abies balsamea. The Norway Spruce is one of the cheaper trees available.   It is a ‘typical’ conifer - being a woody, evergreen tree that produces it seeds in cones.  Like many conifers, the Spruce produces resin, which helps protect the tree from attack by fungi and bacteria. Many Christmas trees are now grown on “Christmas Tree Farms” as opposed to being felled from natural woodlands and forests. Many millions of trees brighten up our homes and offices across the country each Christmas.  Later, they can be recycled as many councils  / local authorities now collect Christmas trees in order to recycle them.  Many are turned into wood chippings / compost and used in local parks as mulch. Sadly, many millions of Christmas trees still end up in land fill each year, where the tree decomposes and produces methane gas, which is more potent than carbon dioxide as a greenhouse gas. Note : other evergreen plants used to decorate the home at this time of year, such Holly, Ivy and Mistletoe should be used with caution as they can contain toxins, which may harm pets etc.  For example, Mistletoe contains Phoratoxin and Viscotoxin, which are poisonous proteins when ingested.   

When we think of Christmas, images of twinkling lights, cozy fires, and beautifully decorated trees come to mind. But while the spruce, pine, and fir claim center stage, there’s a whole woodland world brimming with trees that have their own festive stories to tell. This Christmas, let’s take a stroll through the "Twelve Trees of Christmas" — a celebration of nature’s finest and most festive companions. 1. Norway Spruce (Picea abies) – The Classic Christmas Tree No Christmas tree list would be complete without the Norway spruce. This evergreen beauty has been the go-to Christmas tree for centuries, loved for its lush, aromatic foliage and triangular form. The Norway Spruce in Trafalgar Square has been given annually to the UK since 1947 because of the way the Brits helped Norway. London was also host to Norway’s government in exile. 2. Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris) – The Hardy Hero With its sturdy branches and long-lasting needles, the Scots pine is the practical choice for Christmas tree enthusiasts. Its vibrant green needles stay fresh longer than most, ensuring it remains as cheerful on New Year's Day as it was at the beginning of December. 3. Douglas Fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) – The Fragrant Favorite If scent were the measure of a Christmas tree, the Douglas fir would win every time. Its soft needles release a citrus-like fragrance that fills the home with festive cheer. Not only does it look the part, but it smells divine. 4. Holly (Ilex aquifolium) – The Symbol of Protection Often associated with Christmas wreaths and garlands, holly is steeped in folklore. Its glossy green leaves and bright red berries symbolise protection and rebirth. Legend has it that holly was hung above doorways to ward off evil spirits during the dark winter months. 5. Yew (Taxus baccata) – The Ancient Guardian Mysterious and timeless, the yew tree is often linked to churchyards and ancient sites. Its evergreen nature symbolizes immortality, and while its berries are toxic to humans, they feed wildlife through the harsh winter months. Its quiet presence reminds us of endurance and the promise of spring. 6. Oak (Quercus robur) – The Mighty Monarch The oak may not be a traditional Christmas tree, but its symbolism runs deep. Representing strength, wisdom, and endurance, oak wood is often used to create Christmas gifts like handmade toys and furniture. It's also a winter haven for woodland creatures. 7. Silver Birch (Betula pendula) – The Snowy Sentinel With its white, papery bark, the silver birch evokes the image of snow-dusted forests. Its ethereal appearance has inspired winter landscapes in art and folklore. Birch symbolises new beginnings, making it a fitting addition to a Christmas-themed woodland. 8. Rowan (Sorbus aucuparia) – The Protector Tree Known as the "witch tree," the rowan was believed to protect against enchantments and evil spirits. With its striking red berries, it mirrors the colours of Christmas, and its branches were traditionally used in seasonal decorations for protection and luck. 9. Hazel (Corylus avellana) – The Giver of Gifts Hazel trees are associated with knowledge and hidden treasures. This link extends to the Christmas season, where hazelnuts (a popular festive snack) are cracked open as tasty treats. The tree also plays a role in the production of handcrafted wooden gifts. 10. Elm (Ulmus) – The Tree of Endurance Strong, graceful, and long-lived, the elm is a quiet symbol of perseverance. While it may not appear in Christmas carols, it stood in woodlands as a steadfast reminder of nature's resilience. Ironically this resilience was lost in most of the UK after the 1970s when Dutch Elm disease started to cull the population of elm trees. There are still pockets where Dutcnh Elm disease hasn’t spread such as the environs of Brighton. 11. Cedar (Cedrus) – The Tree of Light Cedarwood has a rich, spicy aroma that evokes the warmth of Christmas. Its association with strength and purification is rooted in ancient traditions, where cedar was used to build sacred spaces. Modern Christmas potpourris and festive scents often feature cedar’s warm, woody fragrance. 12. Cherry (Prunus avium) – The Tree of Hope The cherry tree, while more famous for its spring blossoms, has a place in the Christmas story too. Cherry wood is used to make handcrafted ornaments, while the fruit reminds us of sweet indulgences. The cherry tree’s promise of beauty after the harsh winter aligns perfectly with the themes of hope and renewal. A Woodland Celebration for Christmas As we deck our halls with boughs of holly and turn on Christmas tree lights on pines and firs, let’s remember that the magic of the season is rooted in nature. The Twelve Trees of Christmas remind us of the vital role woodlands play in our winter celebrations. From the traditional spruce and fir to the symbolic holly, oak, and rowan, each tree has its own story, bringing depth, warmth, and wonder to the festive season. This year, as you admire your Christmas tree, take a moment to think of its woodland companions. They may not all be sitting in your living room, but their presence is felt in every wreath, garland, and wooden gift that graces your home. The spirit of the forest is with us at Christmas — a reminder of nature’s gifts, resilience, and the promise of new growth.