The Fungi are a very diverse and ‘strange’ group of organisms, the true fungi are referred to as the Mycota. The Oomycota are fungus-like organisms, but somewhat different and are responsible for diseases like potato blight.   Unlike green plants, fungi do not have any chlorophyll so cannot make sugars and other compounds by photosynthesis. They get their sugars / carbohydrates through being  saprobes (saprophytes),  parasites, or sometimes  symbionts. Many soil fungi are saprobes, that is, they ‘feed’ on the dead leaves, bits of bark, dead bodies of insects and other animals that end up in the soil. Fungal saprobes, together with bacteria and other organisms, use enzymes to break down the complex chemicals in the dead and decaying remains, to release simpler compounds such as sugars and amino acids. These are then used for the growth and development of the fungi. Fungal parasites obtain their sugars and amino acids by feeding on another living organism (the host). Examples of parasitic fungi include  mildews,  ergot of rye, Athlete’s foot  bracket fungi, Aspergillosis (lung disease)   ‘rusts’ on wheat and hollyhocks Thrush As can be seen from the list above, the host can be us. By definition, parasitic associations do not benefit the host. Some fungi enter into an association with another living organism in which both partners benefit; this is symbiosis. Lichens are examples of symbiotic associations between various types of algae and fungi. For more information on the nature of lichens, see the WoodlandsTV film.   [embed]https://youtu.be/YnyxpY8V-GI?si=InEq06izX88VJJnI[/embed] Mycorrhizae are symbiotic associations between fungi and the roots of certain trees and other plants. The microscopic, tube-like fungal threads (hyphae) form a network around the roots of a tree.  They take various carbohydrate compounds from the tree that it has made through photosynthesis.   However, the transfer is not one way; the tree benefits as it gains mineral nutrients from the extensive fungal network of hyphae that ramify through the soil – absorbing a variety of minerals. As a result of their enhanced mineral nutrition, mycorrhizal plants often show better growth and development when compared to non-mycorrhizal ones (of the same species).    [embed]https://youtu.be/I0Buzzhv40E?si=sZBjTRt5rr0Cbdid[/embed] Interestingly, it is thought that the invasive Rhododendron ponticum gains an advantage though it’s mycorrhizal associations. In nutrient poor acidic soils they may ‘starve’ competing plants of vital nutrient requirements.  It also has the ability to poison the soil for others (a phenomenon known as allelopathy}.   It is thought that ancient / veteran trees such as Oak in the UK, or the Bristlecones in the States have well developed and diverse mycorrhizal systems. At the other end of scale in terms of size are orchids.  Orchids produce seeds that are so small [(0.35mm to 1.50mm long] that they contain no nutrition to sustain the germinating seedling. Instead, the seeds must gain the energy to grow from a fungal symbiont.  The cells of the seed are actually penetrated by the fungus.  Recent research on the common spotted orchid by Professor Field at the University of Sheffield suggests that the fungi supplying the nutrients may be connected to parent plants. This may explain why orchids are often found in clumps - despite the seeds being wind dispersed. The idea that mycelial networks may allow communication between trees over a large area has received much attention recently - the wood wide web.     The book “Finding the mother tree” by Suzanne Simard “proposed that trees help each other out by dispatching resources and warning signals through fungal networks in the soil”. The idea was further promulgated in a TED talk. However, a review of relevant research papers / literature by Justine Karst, University of Alberta (and others) suggests that the claims are based on limited evidence and that further research is needed. Vanilla is made from the fermented fruits (‘pods’) of the vanilla orchid (Vanilla planifolia).  

The tawny owl, sometimes called the brown owl, is found in woodlands across Europe. The barn owl is more likely to be found in open country such as farmland or grassland. Woodlands TV has recently produced a film abut encouraging owls in a woodland, interviewing Richard Lloyd Evans of Project Nestbox. The film "How to Encourage Owls to Your Woodland" can be seen below, or visit the Woodlands TV channel on You Tube.. Both owl species are birds of prey that hunt at night. They mainly hunt for rodents, though they are also known to prey on bats.   Interestingly, some bats [like the greater mouse eared bat] when captured in a mist net, make a buzzing sound - reminiscent of bees and wasps.  Researchers wondered if this was a defence mechanism - a form of batesian mimicry, where the prey animal resembles another species that is dangerous or distasteful in order to avoid being eaten.  The research team recorded the buzzing sounds of different species of bee, wasp and hornet.  They exposed these recordings to owls in a wild life rehabilitation centre.  When the recordings were played the owls moved away from the speakers. So perhaps, bat buzzing startles an owl and makes the bat less likely to be eaten. In contrast, when the social calls of bats were played, the owls moved towards the sounds, perhaps thinking of a meal!.   When owls capture something like a vole, it is swallowed whole.  Later, the indigestible parts (the bones and fur) are regurgitated as a pellet.  Pellets may be found under trees used for roosting or nesting. When the pellets are opened up, they reveal very small bones but an intact skull may be found.  Rodents are not the only prey, especially when the owls have young to feed.  Young rabbits, small birds, earthworms and beetles may form part of the diet.  Smaller and less powerful owls [for example, the little owl and the long-eared owl] generally cannot co-exist alongside the stronger / bigger tawny owls, indeed they may take them as prey. The best time to see an owl is generally at dawn or dusk. [embed]https://youtu.be/aU_3nqdMGrI?si=j3wFUJpXDC6H3n-5[/embed] Curious fact : the owl has often been seen as an omen of bad luck : Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar. "And yesterday the bird of night did sit  Even at noon-day upon the market-place Hooting and shrieking.”  and Japan has emerged as the largest importer of live owls globally, with these iconic birds becoming increasingly popular as pets and featuring prominently in animal cafés  

Around the western coast of Britain, there are some rare and beautiful woodlands sometimes referred to as "temperate rainforest” or “Atlantic woodlands’.  There are such woodlands in North Wales, rich in ancient oaks and birch. They are ancient woodlands.  Such woodlands have little value in terms of timber but contribute massively to biological diversity - the trees are covered with different moss, liverwort and lichen species, underneath there is a ‘carpet’ of bilberries and varied ferns.  These woods have developed as a result of the influence of the  Gulf Stream.    This keeps the area warm but also wet,  the incoming air is also ‘clean’, creating woodlands unlike others in Britain.  Such woods have a damp and humid feel  and this dampness encourages mosses, liverworts, lichens and fungi. They are to be found on the rough bark of oak, the smooth bark of hazel, and covering rocks.  When one plant grows on another, it is termed an epiphyte. The tree canopy helps to ‘lock in’ the moisture. These epiphytes are discussed in some detail by April Windle of the British Lichen Society in a recent WoodlandsTV film on Temperate Woodlands, which can be viewed below. [embed]https://youtu.be/lO1H_iFFZJY?si=k0-UPv0DIsMJpwRs[/embed] The damp and humid conditions are also helped by the streams and waterfalls in these woods, plus the abundance of the epiphytes ensures that there is constant evaporation. The difficult access and rugged terrain of some of these woodlands may have helped them remain unchanged for centuries, probably dating back to the last ice age. Temperate rainforest must once have covered the Atlantic fringe of Western Europe, ranging from North West Scotland all the way down to the Iberian Peninsula.  Temperate rainforest is biodiverse, home to species not found anywhere else in the world.  Bats find a home here, such as the greater and lesser horseshoe bats, where they feed upon the rich source of invertebrates that thrive in these woodlands. The challenge for an owner of such a woodland is how to protect and manage it. It is not just a case of leaving them alone.  Winter grazing controls the bramble and holly, this helps protect the mosses and lichens, ensuring natural regeneration can occur.  If bramble and other botanical thugs gain an upper hand, then the mosses etc will be shaded out.  Tree seedlings would also struggle to establish themselves.  The intensity / frequency of grazing is critical, Natural Resources Wales (NRW) suggests one sheep per hectare for the winter months.  Ponies can be used for such grazing but they need more management than sheep.  The range of Woodlands TV films can be seen on the Woodlands TV channel on You Tube : https://www.youtube.com/@WOODLANDSTV  

The badger (strictly speaking the european badger) arrived in this country,  like everything else, as the ice retreated some thousands of years ago.  It is our largest land predator, others such as the wolf are no longer with us - though some would support their reintroduction as part of rewilding programs. Whilst badgers are predators, they are, in fact, omnivores - eating both plant and animal material.  Much of their diet is earthworms, though they are not averse to small mammals such as mice, rats and hedgehogs!  Whilst badgers tend to make their home (setts) in woodlands, they will travel to open fields and pastures in search of food, digging for grubs [for example, chafer larvae]. A badger sett is a complex, extensive engineering feat accomplished by using their powerful front limbs and claws.  They dig down and then drag the earth out of the tunnels by moving backwards with the soil under their chin and then deposit it in a ‘spoil heap’.   The presence of a spoil heap is a good indication of a badger sett in your woodland.   If a colony is well established there will be a main sett, but also an ‘annex sett', and possibly even smaller setts away from the main sett.  Recently Woodland TV filmed Adrian Coward from the Somerset Badger Group, who explains in details the nature and relationship of these setts and how badgers recognise their ‘family members’ and how they mark their territory.  They move around their territory along well defined paths. [embed]https://youtu.be/vv3CK1hVM2o?si=_TmpkcXhKoxqy24A[/embed] Whilst we know a lot about how badgers move through their home territories, little was known about any long distance movements. To investigate such movements, scientists set up a study in County Kilkenny (Ireland).  It was one of the largest badger studies of its type,  The study spanned a large area and some four years ,and 'followed' some 900+ badgers.  They found that whilst most badgers only moved 2 to 3 kilometres from their sett, some travelled 7.5 km and the longest distance travelled by a badger was 22 km.  If animals can move around and meet with other populations, this can promote outbreeding. Learning about these 'lengthier' movements may be a useful contribution in the discussion of badgers and bovine tuberculosis - which is also discussed in the Woodlands TV film ‘Facts about badgers’, and the topic has featured in other woodland blogs. Curious fact : The French call a wet shaving brush blaireau or “badger", because quality brushes use badger hair. Apart from viewing Woodlands TV on this site, it may also be viewed on YouTube : www.youtube.com/@WOODLANDSTV 82K subscribers 482 videos 15,896,142 views Joined 9 Jul 2008 United Kingdom

The hazel dormouse is an arboreal species, that is to say, it spends a large part of the year up in the trees.  It is also largely nocturnal in habit. Its favourite foods are hazelnuts, berries and insects.  Their active period is between Spring and Autumn, and during this time they build a ‘nest’.  These nests tends to made from ‘local materials’ usually found within a few metres of the nest.  Bracken, hazel, beech leaves and grasses are frequently used, though honeysuckle and other species may be incorporated.  The nests are found in trees in deciduous woodlands, thick scrub, and hedgerows, feeding on local available materials depending on the time of year.  They tend not to move great distances, generally having a range of up to a hectare. With the approach of colder weather and limited food supplies, the dormouse tends to move down to the ground and build another nest ready for hibernation.  The winter nest is similar to that built in the canopy with an outer layer of leaves and core of some ‘woven’ material.  Hibernation is a dangerous time for a dormouse.  If the dormouse has not accumulated enough fat reserves then it will simply run out of energy during the cold weather.  It has been estimated that a dormouse loses about 0.5% of its body weight every day during hibernation.  Whilst ‘asleep’, the dormouse is easy prey for a predator and could also die as a result of trampling by a large animal [the nests are inconspicuous], or indeed woodland management activities. [caption id="attachment_41621" align="aligncenter" width="650"] Dormouse in a state of torpor.[/caption] Interestingly, during the dormouse’s active period of Spring and Summer, the dormouse can enter into a state of torpor when food is scarce.   This allows them to save energy through dropping body temperature and heart rate.  So hazel dormice can spend a lot of the year ‘asleep’ in one form or another. Woodlands TV has just produced their first film about the hazel dormouse - which can be viewed below. This film was made in collaboration with the People’s Trust for Endangered Species (PTES). More information on the PTES’ monitoring and conservation of hazel dormice can be accessed by clicking here, Note that a licence is required for handling these special animals, details in this link :- https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/hazel-dormice-survey-or-research-licence-level-1. [embed]https://youtu.be/COUh5ZluEew?si=f697mPkVLoI8dceU[/embed] Interesting fact : Though Ireland has no native dormouse, the hazel dormouse was found in County Kildare in 2010. Further films by Woodland TV can be found here : -https://www.youtube.com/@WOODLANDSTV    

Woodlands TV has produced a film entitled  “The Wonder of woodland fungus”.  In this informative film by Siddarth Shetty, Professor Mahesh Nirmalan, of Manchester Royal Infirmary, and Professor Niroshini Nirmalan, of the University of Salford, talk about the wonders of woodland fungi, their benefits and what we can do to protect them. Fungi are neither plant nor animal but they play an essential role in woodland ecosystems.  Fungi together with bacteria and other micro-organisms contribute to the detrital food chains, which are vital to the cycling of carbon, nitrogen and other nutrients.   [embed]https://youtu.be/E-6XGVNVppk?si=d5ZMbUG2MBW5qFeI[/embed] The excellent photography in the film shows several species of fungi that you might find in a woodland setting. If you want to know more about some of them then, there are some older woodlands.co.uk blogs that you might find interesting. Sulphur tufts https://www.woodlands.co.uk/blog/flora-and-fauna/monthly-mushroom-sulphur-tuft-hypholoma-fasciculare/ Amethyst deceiver https://www.woodlands.co.uk/blog/flora-and-fauna/november-fungi-focus-amethyst-deceiver-laccaria-amethystina-and-the-documentary-fantastic-fungi/ Chicken of the woods https://www.woodlands.co.uk/blog/flora-and-fauna/the-monthly-mushroom-chicken-of-the-woods/ Polypores https://www.woodlands.co.uk/blog/woodland-activities/the-monthly-mushroom-dryads-saddle-polyporus-squamosus/ Candle snuff https://www.woodlands.co.uk/blog/woodland-activities/december-monthly-mushroom-purple-jellydisc-ascocoryne-sarcoides/ Beefsteak fungus. https://www.woodlands.co.uk/blog/flora-and-fauna/july-fungi-focus-beefsteak-fungus/ Bonnet Mushrooms. https://www.woodlands.co.uk/blog/flora-and-fauna/november-fungi-focus-orange-mosscaps-orange-bonnets-and-moss-bells/ & https://www.woodlands.co.uk/blog/flora-and-fauna/novembers-fungi-focus-rosy-bonnet-mycena-rosea/ Thanks to Woodlands TV for images.

If a hedgehog is in distress it may just need water or you might want to seek help from an expert such as Lisa Steward of the Thorne Hedgehog Rescue project in Puckley, Kent. I met Lisa at Kent's Belmont Wood Fair in early September where she was bottle-feeding a hoglet whose mother had been run over by a car. This was only one of the 200 hedgehogs she has rescued and is nursing back to health. Another one that she is nursing had almost been decapitated by a strimmer but fortunately its wound had not become infected. What Lisa never does is to feed them cow's milk which can be fatal. Unfortunately I didn't know that when I found a distressed hedgehog a few years ago. My mistake of giving it a saucer of cow's milk may have killed it or it could already have been doomed from eating the neighbour's poisonous slug pellets. I'll always have that hedgehog on my conscience. [embed]https://youtube.com/shorts/1QWIIaEQyyE?feature=share[/embed] It turns out that hedgehogs are both loveable and important - they eat slugs and beetles and are an important part of the British ecosystem. Unfortunately they are often harmed by poisons such as insecticides and other chemicals: to reduce the chemical threat it has been illegal in the UK since 2022 to use or sell metaldehyde slug pellets, but many other threats remain.  Cars can run them over partly because of the hedgehog's instinct to respond to danger by curling into a ball rather than running away - the paradox of roadkill is that if you don't see dead hedgehogs it does not mean they are all safe - more likely it means there are none, or very few, surviving in that vicinity. Another danger is that they get trapped - ponds with steep sides, swimming pools and cattle grids each represent a threat, so ideally each of these will have a ramp that the hedgehogs can use to climb out. https://youtube.com/shorts/sPpi46CYnkI?feature=share The British Hedgehog Preservation Society advise on how to help protect hedgehogs and they suggest that gardeners who light bonfires should be alert to the risk of unintended cremation of living hedgehogs. Unfortunately they are attracted to the sort of material that will be burnt in a bonfire such as dry leaves and twigs. So as a precaution, and if possible, a gardener should set up a new site for their fire and move the material across to that spot just before lighting the fire. Similarly anyone strimming an area should first check that there are no hedgehogs hiding in the uncut undergrowth. Hedgehogs can also get trapped in litter or stuck in netting so it is sensible to make gardens hedgehog-safe. But it is even better to actively make gardens hedgehog friendly - by creating wild areas which offer shelter and natural food. And it helps to leave gaps below fences or ground-level holes in walls so that a garden is accessible to hedgehogs. Our enthusiasm for hedgehogs in the autumn should not be extended to translocating them from other places because they may have a dependent litter which is left behind and is then condemned to starvation. Indeed in the autumn hoglets need to grow rapidly so that they can survive their first winter of hibernation - at a minimum they need to weigh at least a pound or about half a kilogram. You could help your hedgehogs by building a "hedgehog hotel" as Steve has done here with his daughter.  Here is a short film by WoodlandsTV: [embed]https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-n6J0dRz8OY&ab_channel=WoodlandsTV[/embed] If you come across an injured hedgehog you could contact the British Hedgehog Preservation Society which keeps a Directory of local rescuers or "rehabilitators"                              

This is a re-post of a blog from 2023, but this time with the new film by WoodlandsTV, in which April Windle [of the British Lichen Society] examines the role of the many complex chemicals found in Lichens. Lichens are plant-like organisms that are rather unusual in that they are an amalgam of two (or occasionally three) organisms : a fungus and algae (or cyanobacterium). They are symbiotic systems, where the partners in the association work together for mutual benefit.  The fungus makes up the bulk of the lichen's form (known as the thallus), it is a complex network of fungal threads (hyphae) that surround the algal cells.  The algae (green algae or cyanobacteria) are essential to the symbiosis as they can photosynthesise, capturing carbon dioxide and providing both partners with organic carbon compounds (often in the form of sugar alcohols). Lichens produce an amazing variety of chemicals - many are secondary metabolites.  It is thought that some of these may  have medical / pharmacological properties.  Some species  of lichen are brightly coloured because of the chemicals.. The colour may vary from a golden yellow to a deep red. The pigments responsible for these colours belong to the anthraquinones.  However, these insoluble, phenolic pigments can have toxic effects. To avoid harm by these pigments, the lichen exports* the pigment from the fungal component of the symbiosis. [caption id="attachment_39795" align="aligncenter" width="675"] Moss and lichen growing together[/caption] The pigment then accumulates / crystallises on the surface of the lichen. The layer of pigment crystals reflects harmful radiation in the form of ultra-violet light and also blue light, whilst still allowing enough light to pass through for photosynthesis by the algae / cyanobacteria. Exposure to ultra-violet light can damage DNA, inducing mutations.  The pigmentl layer is effectively a ‘sunscreen’ for the lichen. * Recent work at Imperial College and RBG, Kew has identified the genes responsible for pigment production, and the transport of the pigment out of the fungal tissue. In the past, certain lichen pigments were often used to dye clothing materials.    Parmelia saxatilis, also known as grey crottle, was used to dye wool for Harris Tweed.  This lichen is often found growing on tree trunks and gives a red / brown colour to the material. For more information on the various chemicals found in Lichens, see the WoodlandsTV film below : The Chemical, Medicinal and Biofluorescent Properties of Lichen. [embed]https://youtu.be/AEc263aQ1rQ?si=00FwDTH5LljetQ0A[/embed] Curious fact : Some specimens of the lichen Rhizocarpon geographicum are thought to have lived for thousands of years.