We spent a day with Chloe, a professional forager, along with her truffle hunting spaniel Samphire. All day we foraged on the banks of the River Severn in Chepstow, Monmouthshire, Wales. It is bountiful at any given time of the year and Chloe explained that you just have to know when, where and how to find the goodies. We found over thirty edible roots, flowers, vegetables, field mushrooms, and seeds amongst meadows, hedgerows, salt marshes and woodland, locating. Chloe’s enthusiasm shone through as she described how to identify and harvest these wild ingredients.  A foraged feast in the wild was a perfect end to the session, where we enjoyed both pre-prepared dishes and the freshly picked produce of the day. The menu included creamy oyster & field mushroom soup with miso and brandy, orange birch bolete mushroom puff pastries, mugwort focaccia, venison, and elfcup mushrooms stuffed with 3-cornered garlic. Chloe had made Jack-by-the-hedge hummus with primrose blooms, as well as fennel and chickpea salad, and much more.  We were treated to the folklore behind much of the foraged food and details of the medicinal and nutritional benefits from each find. Of particular interest were the use of medicinal mushrooms which are thought to strengthen the immune system, such as reishi, lion’s Mane, chaga, cordyceps, and turkey tail, where a preparation known as Krestin has been used as a supportive therapy against cancer in Japan for decades.  We learnt the origins of the word ‘wort’, which is probably derived from the Anglo Saxon word for wound or hurt, implying curative properties such as Navelwort, St John’s Wort and Mugwort, but occasionally implying a strong physiological effect of a negative nature such as poisonous Ragwort.  There is plenty of folklore around the yarrow plant, Achillea millefolium, the latter alluding to thousands of leaves due to its fluffy, feather like appearance. Achillea is related to the legend of Achilles who always carried yarrow on the battlefield to stem bleeding and it is indeed a wonderful styptic. To protect him before the Trojan war his family collected yarrow, considered to be a cure-all miracle herb and immersed it in water. The legend is that his entire body was bathed in the magic water but as he was held by one foot he has a residual weakness referred to as his “Achilles heel”. The muddy banks of the Seven Estuary harboured some hidden gems. Scurvy grass or spoonworm, a species of flowering plant in the family Brassicaceae was taken aboard ships in dried bundles to combat scurvy. Wild spinach, plantains, radishes and cabbages line the estuary coast. Wales also has a seaweed called Pepper Dulse which tastes like truffle with a hint of garlic. We also found woodruff, a beautiful woodland plant that grows in whorls, which when dried tastes like Amaretto. The enchanting elfcup is a dainty red mushroom adorning the forest floor and when picked it appears to emit a puff of ‘fairy dust’: nature is a treasure trove of beauty and magic.  The cautionary mantras, “Never munch on a hunch” and “If in doubt, leave it out”, are wise words indeed. The poisonous Ragwort with its yellow flattened flower heads appears similar to wild cabbage, and like the hemlock water dropwort it can be deadly - all parts oft the dropwort are highly toxic and ingestion can be fatal. It is a member of the carrot family with many edible lookalikes such as celery and parsley which can be confusing and dangerous for a novice. It grows in damp areas such as wet grassland and woodland, river and stream banks, canals and in the vicinity of ponds and lakes. Foraging is fun! But there are a few rules to observe. If you don’t already own the land you will need to have the landowner’s permission to forage, and you should not not forage on public land for commercial gain. It’s important to avoid areas which could have been sprayed with chemicals such as land bordering farmland. Sustainable foragers always harvest with care and observe how prolific the plant is to make sure they never take too much. If you want to see more of Chloe’s foraging course and guided walks, have a look at www.gourmetgatherings.co.uk 

Woodlands can provide food for many different species of birds.  The food may range from insects hiding in the ‘nooks and crannies’ of bark, to those buried in the leaf litter, or indeed feeding on the leaves,  Woodland can also be a rich sources of berries, and material for nest building. The tree canopies offer shelter and protection for nest building, egg laying and the rearing of young. Examples of birds that may be found in woodlands include the  Blackcap : Sylvia atricapilla Nightingale : Luscinia megarhynchos  Tawny owl : Strix aluco  Capercaillie : Tetrao urogallus Treecreeper : Certhia familiaris  Hawfinch : Coccothraustes coccothraustes  Lesser spotted woodpecker : Dendrocopos minor Redstart : Phoenicurus phoenicurus Pied flycatcher : Ficedula hypoleuca Some birds are with us all the year round but others are ‘visitors’ or birds of passage..  They are migratory, taking advantage of seasonal resources, especially food so that they can breed successfully.  In the UK, there is a phase of bird migration in the Spring, when visitors like Swifts and Cuckoos arrive. In the Autumn, a different set of birds may arrive such as waders and wildfowl - particularly in coastal regions / wetlands. Examples of migratory ‘woodland’ birds include the redstart and the pied flycatcher.  Both species make extra-ordinary journeys from central / tropical Africa, crossing deserts, mountains and seas. Migrating birds make use of a range of techniques to navigate their routes. They may use physical landmarks like rivers, coastlines or mountains, or orient using the sun or stars, or even the earth’s magnetic field.    Recent research has shown that there is a special protein in the retina of the eye that is sensitive to weak magnetic fields.  Sometimes, young birds learn by following their parents. Migration is not without risk : They can get lost - particularly young birds They may meet with ‘obstacles’, they may collide with power lines and wind turbines.  Skyscrapers with lots of glass in their walls represent a significant problem for many migrating birds.  Though it is possible to fit glass units, which contains a patterned, UV reflective coating, visible to birds. Extreme weather events, such as sandstorms and wildfires Birds may be the target of hunting or trapping during their travels. The loss of resting places, for example, UK wetlands are havens for some migrants.  If such places are disturbed while birds are roosting / feeding or damaged then birds have no opportunity to rest / refuel. Woodlands TV has produced a film on how to attract migratory birds to your woodland, it can be viewed below or at this You Tube link : https://youtu.be/v2pklxHbvBM [embed]https://youtu.be/v2pklxHbvBM?si=S-5y64Ls6_5_299r[/embed]  It focuses in particular on the redstart and the pied flycatcher.  Detailed information on the redstart can be found here, and details of the pied flycatcher here.  

The UN Biodiversity meeting COP16 has announced that 38% of the earth’s trees are facing extinction in ‘the wild’.  The biggest threats to trees are Clearing land / forests for farming Fires and climate change Logging tree for timber The spread of pests The spread of disease One example of a tree under threat is the monkey puzzle tree.  In Chile, climate change has resulted in the country’s Araucanía (Monkey Puzzle) region becoming hotter and drier, and as a result forest fires have become more frequent. It is thought that a million of these trees have been lost in a recent fire in the National Park, and many of these trees were mature specimens - hundreds of years old. Apart from their intrinsic beauty, trees, woodlands and forests are important.  They Absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, helping mitigate global warming Produce oxygen vital for us (for respiration) and so many living organisms on this planet Provides ‘homes’ / habitats for many hundreds of species of birds, mammals, insects, arachnids, lichens, mosses and other epiphytes. Help offset some of the effects of pollution. If the trees are lost, then many of the species that live on or in the trees will also be lost, so the world is at risk of a major biodiversity crisis.  The list of endangered species grows longer.   Populations of the hedgehog have shrunk across Europe, as farming expands, and cities & roadways grow so its natural habitat shrinks. In the UK, other species such as the Red Squirrel, the Water Vole, the Scottish wildcat (an elusive and rare animal), the hazel dormouse and the grey long eared bat maintain a precarious hold on life. A delegation of scientists from Kew Gardens, was present at COP 16 in Colombia, talking about ‘the dark spots of biodiversity knowledge’, that is, identifying those regions of the world where collecting efforts need to be prioritised in order to document the plant species currently unknown to science (before they are lost).    

Climate change is upon us.  Heatwaves are becoming more common, resulting in drought and fires, which we have seen in many parts of the world in recent years.  The effect of high temperature on animals [and us] is that the heat pushes the organism beyond its ability to regulate its body temperature, so it loses water and its systems fail. Of course, there are some plants and animals that can survive in extreme temperatures, the cacti and some lizards of the deserts being examples.  The plants have, in most cases, reduced their leaves down to spines and reduced their surface area in other ways.  They also tend to have thick waxy cuticles to reduce the loss of water by transpiration. Apart from causing increased water loss, heat has other effects on plants.  Recent research at the University of California investigated how a ‘heat wave’ affects oil seed  rape - Brassica napus.  Nick Rosenberger and colleagues grew the plants first in greenhouses and then moved them to chambers kept at two different temperatures. One group experienced a temperature of 25oC, whilst the others were exposed to a temperature of 35oC.  The plants were kept at these temperatures for 72 hours after which they were moved back to the greenhouses.  The research team then studied the effects of temperature on the reproductive process.  Reproduction is a complex process, it involves the formation of reproductive structures from petals, through to stamens, ovaries, stigmas not to mention the process of meiosis by which the pollen and ovules are formed.  These processes are vulnerable to external environmental factors. The research time found that :- The higher temperature of 35oC reduced pollen formation.  The anthers produced significantly less pollen compared to the plants that experienced 25oC. The higher temperature affected the development of the pollen tubes.  The structure by which the pollen grain nucleus makes its journey down to the ovule. The number of seeds produced after exposure to heat was reduced substantially by over 80%.   So heat exposure substantially reduced reproductive success, which is important consideration in terms of crop yield, and indeed the continued existence of the species.  Heat waves may have the effect of reducing food security, genetic diversity and, indeed,  biodiversity. Curious fact : The root systems of mature creosote plants  (which grow in Death Valley) are so efficient at absorbing water that nearby seeds cannot get enough water to germinate, this effectively creates ‘dead zones’ around each plant.

The Fungi are a very diverse and ‘strange’ group of organisms, the true fungi are referred to as the Mycota. The Oomycota are fungus-like organisms, but somewhat different and are responsible for diseases like potato blight.   Unlike green plants, fungi do not have any chlorophyll so cannot make sugars and other compounds by photosynthesis. They get their sugars / carbohydrates through being  saprobes (saprophytes),  parasites, or sometimes  symbionts. Many soil fungi are saprobes, that is, they ‘feed’ on the dead leaves, bits of bark, dead bodies of insects and other animals that end up in the soil. Fungal saprobes, together with bacteria and other organisms, use enzymes to break down the complex chemicals in the dead and decaying remains, to release simpler compounds such as sugars and amino acids. These are then used for the growth and development of the fungi. Fungal parasites obtain their sugars and amino acids by feeding on another living organism (the host). Examples of parasitic fungi include  mildews,  ergot of rye, Athlete’s foot  bracket fungi, Aspergillosis (lung disease)   ‘rusts’ on wheat and hollyhocks Thrush As can be seen from the list above, the host can be us. By definition, parasitic associations do not benefit the host. Some fungi enter into an association with another living organism in which both partners benefit; this is symbiosis. Lichens are examples of symbiotic associations between various types of algae and fungi. For more information on the nature of lichens, see the WoodlandsTV film.   [embed]https://youtu.be/YnyxpY8V-GI?si=InEq06izX88VJJnI[/embed] Mycorrhizae are symbiotic associations between fungi and the roots of certain trees and other plants. The microscopic, tube-like fungal threads (hyphae) form a network around the roots of a tree.  They take various carbohydrate compounds from the tree that it has made through photosynthesis.   However, the transfer is not one way; the tree benefits as it gains mineral nutrients from the extensive fungal network of hyphae that ramify through the soil – absorbing a variety of minerals. As a result of their enhanced mineral nutrition, mycorrhizal plants often show better growth and development when compared to non-mycorrhizal ones (of the same species).    [embed]https://youtu.be/I0Buzzhv40E?si=sZBjTRt5rr0Cbdid[/embed] Interestingly, it is thought that the invasive Rhododendron ponticum gains an advantage though it’s mycorrhizal associations. In nutrient poor acidic soils they may ‘starve’ competing plants of vital nutrient requirements.  It also has the ability to poison the soil for others (a phenomenon known as allelopathy}.   It is thought that ancient / veteran trees such as Oak in the UK, or the Bristlecones in the States have well developed and diverse mycorrhizal systems. At the other end of scale in terms of size are orchids.  Orchids produce seeds that are so small [(0.35mm to 1.50mm long] that they contain no nutrition to sustain the germinating seedling. Instead, the seeds must gain the energy to grow from a fungal symbiont.  The cells of the seed are actually penetrated by the fungus.  Recent research on the common spotted orchid by Professor Field at the University of Sheffield suggests that the fungi supplying the nutrients may be connected to parent plants. This may explain why orchids are often found in clumps - despite the seeds being wind dispersed. The idea that mycelial networks may allow communication between trees over a large area has received much attention recently - the wood wide web.     The book “Finding the mother tree” by Suzanne Simard “proposed that trees help each other out by dispatching resources and warning signals through fungal networks in the soil”. The idea was further promulgated in a TED talk. However, a review of relevant research papers / literature by Justine Karst, University of Alberta (and others) suggests that the claims are based on limited evidence and that further research is needed. Vanilla is made from the fermented fruits (‘pods’) of the vanilla orchid (Vanilla planifolia).  

The tawny owl, sometimes called the brown owl, is found in woodlands across Europe. The barn owl is more likely to be found in open country such as farmland or grassland. Woodlands TV has recently produced a film abut encouraging owls in a woodland, interviewing Richard Lloyd Evans of Project Nestbox. The film "How to Encourage Owls to Your Woodland" can be seen below, or visit the Woodlands TV channel on You Tube.. Both owl species are birds of prey that hunt at night. They mainly hunt for rodents, though they are also known to prey on bats.   Interestingly, some bats [like the greater mouse eared bat] when captured in a mist net, make a buzzing sound - reminiscent of bees and wasps.  Researchers wondered if this was a defence mechanism - a form of batesian mimicry, where the prey animal resembles another species that is dangerous or distasteful in order to avoid being eaten.  The research team recorded the buzzing sounds of different species of bee, wasp and hornet.  They exposed these recordings to owls in a wild life rehabilitation centre.  When the recordings were played the owls moved away from the speakers. So perhaps, bat buzzing startles an owl and makes the bat less likely to be eaten. In contrast, when the social calls of bats were played, the owls moved towards the sounds, perhaps thinking of a meal!.   When owls capture something like a vole, it is swallowed whole.  Later, the indigestible parts (the bones and fur) are regurgitated as a pellet.  Pellets may be found under trees used for roosting or nesting. When the pellets are opened up, they reveal very small bones but an intact skull may be found.  Rodents are not the only prey, especially when the owls have young to feed.  Young rabbits, small birds, earthworms and beetles may form part of the diet.  Smaller and less powerful owls [for example, the little owl and the long-eared owl] generally cannot co-exist alongside the stronger / bigger tawny owls, indeed they may take them as prey. The best time to see an owl is generally at dawn or dusk. [embed]https://youtu.be/aU_3nqdMGrI?si=j3wFUJpXDC6H3n-5[/embed] Curious fact : the owl has often been seen as an omen of bad luck : Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar. "And yesterday the bird of night did sit  Even at noon-day upon the market-place Hooting and shrieking.”  and Japan has emerged as the largest importer of live owls globally, with these iconic birds becoming increasingly popular as pets and featuring prominently in animal cafés  

Around the western coast of Britain, there are some rare and beautiful woodlands sometimes referred to as "temperate rainforest” or “Atlantic woodlands’.  There are such woodlands in North Wales, rich in ancient oaks and birch. They are ancient woodlands.  Such woodlands have little value in terms of timber but contribute massively to biological diversity - the trees are covered with different moss, liverwort and lichen species, underneath there is a ‘carpet’ of bilberries and varied ferns.  These woods have developed as a result of the influence of the  Gulf Stream.    This keeps the area warm but also wet,  the incoming air is also ‘clean’, creating woodlands unlike others in Britain.  Such woods have a damp and humid feel  and this dampness encourages mosses, liverworts, lichens and fungi. They are to be found on the rough bark of oak, the smooth bark of hazel, and covering rocks.  When one plant grows on another, it is termed an epiphyte. The tree canopy helps to ‘lock in’ the moisture. These epiphytes are discussed in some detail by April Windle of the British Lichen Society in a recent WoodlandsTV film on Temperate Woodlands, which can be viewed below. [embed]https://youtu.be/lO1H_iFFZJY?si=k0-UPv0DIsMJpwRs[/embed] The damp and humid conditions are also helped by the streams and waterfalls in these woods, plus the abundance of the epiphytes ensures that there is constant evaporation. The difficult access and rugged terrain of some of these woodlands may have helped them remain unchanged for centuries, probably dating back to the last ice age. Temperate rainforest must once have covered the Atlantic fringe of Western Europe, ranging from North West Scotland all the way down to the Iberian Peninsula.  Temperate rainforest is biodiverse, home to species not found anywhere else in the world.  Bats find a home here, such as the greater and lesser horseshoe bats, where they feed upon the rich source of invertebrates that thrive in these woodlands. The challenge for an owner of such a woodland is how to protect and manage it. It is not just a case of leaving them alone.  Winter grazing controls the bramble and holly, this helps protect the mosses and lichens, ensuring natural regeneration can occur.  If bramble and other botanical thugs gain an upper hand, then the mosses etc will be shaded out.  Tree seedlings would also struggle to establish themselves.  The intensity / frequency of grazing is critical, Natural Resources Wales (NRW) suggests one sheep per hectare for the winter months.  Ponies can be used for such grazing but they need more management than sheep.  The range of Woodlands TV films can be seen on the Woodlands TV channel on You Tube : https://www.youtube.com/@WOODLANDSTV  

The badger (strictly speaking the european badger) arrived in this country,  like everything else, as the ice retreated some thousands of years ago.  It is our largest land predator, others such as the wolf are no longer with us - though some would support their reintroduction as part of rewilding programs. Whilst badgers are predators, they are, in fact, omnivores - eating both plant and animal material.  Much of their diet is earthworms, though they are not averse to small mammals such as mice, rats and hedgehogs!  Whilst badgers tend to make their home (setts) in woodlands, they will travel to open fields and pastures in search of food, digging for grubs [for example, chafer larvae]. A badger sett is a complex, extensive engineering feat accomplished by using their powerful front limbs and claws.  They dig down and then drag the earth out of the tunnels by moving backwards with the soil under their chin and then deposit it in a ‘spoil heap’.   The presence of a spoil heap is a good indication of a badger sett in your woodland.   If a colony is well established there will be a main sett, but also an ‘annex sett', and possibly even smaller setts away from the main sett.  Recently Woodland TV filmed Adrian Coward from the Somerset Badger Group, who explains in details the nature and relationship of these setts and how badgers recognise their ‘family members’ and how they mark their territory.  They move around their territory along well defined paths. [embed]https://youtu.be/vv3CK1hVM2o?si=_TmpkcXhKoxqy24A[/embed] Whilst we know a lot about how badgers move through their home territories, little was known about any long distance movements. To investigate such movements, scientists set up a study in County Kilkenny (Ireland).  It was one of the largest badger studies of its type,  The study spanned a large area and some four years ,and 'followed' some 900+ badgers.  They found that whilst most badgers only moved 2 to 3 kilometres from their sett, some travelled 7.5 km and the longest distance travelled by a badger was 22 km.  If animals can move around and meet with other populations, this can promote outbreeding. Learning about these 'lengthier' movements may be a useful contribution in the discussion of badgers and bovine tuberculosis - which is also discussed in the Woodlands TV film ‘Facts about badgers’, and the topic has featured in other woodland blogs. Curious fact : The French call a wet shaving brush blaireau or “badger", because quality brushes use badger hair. Apart from viewing Woodlands TV on this site, it may also be viewed on YouTube : www.youtube.com/@WOODLANDSTV 82K subscribers 482 videos 15,896,142 views Joined 9 Jul 2008 United Kingdom