The decline in many insect populations across the globe is worrying, threatening economies and ecosystems.  A German study in 2017 indicated that the mass of flying insects (in various natural areas) had fallen by some 70%+.  The decline in insect populations has been associated with habitat fragmentation, the spread of agriculture and the use of pesticides, with the neonicotinoids being particularly associated with damage to bee and bumblebee populations. Recent work at the University of Konstanz suggests that when bumblebee colonies are exposed to limited resources of nectar and exposure to the herbicide - glyphosate,  then their colonies may fail.  Bumblebee colonies need a good supply of nectar as a ‘fuel’ in order to maintain a constant brood temperature (of approximately 32oC).  Only at this sort of temperature does the eggs & larvae develop quickly from egg to adult, and the colony grow from a single queen to several hundred bees.  If the temperature is not maintained, then the brood develops slowly or not at all.  The loss of wild flowers (and their nectar) plus the use of the herbicide (in agricultural areas) looks to be a problem for the bumblebees. Just as bumblebees are facing problems, so are honey bees.  The bees have faced infections with a variety of viruses, such as the deformed wing virus.  This virus affects wing development so that the wings are 'stubby' and useless, plus they may be deformities of the abdomen and leg paralysis;  the insect cannot function and dies.  The virus is transmitted by the Varroa mite - a parasite (that also feeds on the bees’ tissues).  The virus was originally identified in Japan in 1980’s and is referred to as DWV-A.  However, a new form of the virus (DWV-B) was identified in the Netherlands in 2001 and it is spreading across Europe, and to other continents.  Sadly, this variant of the virus kills bees faster and is more easily transmitted (according to research at the Martin Luther University).

Ladybirds are to be encouraged (with the exception of the harlequin ladybird) as they help control pests such as aphids (greenfly and blackfly). Aphids ‘drain’ nutrient rich sap from host plants and also spread viruses with their piercing mouthparts. Some ladybirds add to their diet with nectar and as they sip nectar from flowers, they may also carry pollen from one flower to another.  Like many other insects, species of native british ladybirds have declined in recent years, many outcompeted by the harlequin ladybird (which is an introduced species from Asia.  Harlequins also harbour a fungus which can infect native ladybirds). [caption id="attachment_39002" align="aligncenter" width="675"] a ladybird 'stalking' aphids[/caption] Ladybirds are coccinellid beetles.  They belong to the order – Coleoptera – and are characterised by having forewings modified to form hard wing covers (ELYTRA) and they have biting mouthparts (as compared to butterflies and moths, which have a proboscis*).  Their wing covers are brightly coloured, and they serve as a warning to predators of their bitter taste. Ladybrds can also exude a pungent fluid to ward off ants, birds and people. Recent work at Cornell University (and the Lost Ladybug Project) has suggested ways in which ladybirds might be encouraged in the garden.   Strategies that might encourage ladybirds include : Growing plants that have hairs on their surfaces that offer some protection from predators,  Plants that 'offer' food such as nectar , or prey (aphids).  For example, aphids are often to be found on roses which frequently are home to aphids. Plants that give visual (or chemical) cues. More ladybirds were observed on the plants from the Umbellifer,  Daisy and Rose families  They seem to be drawn particularly to yellow flowers. [caption id="attachment_30742" align="aligncenter" width="600"] Aphids on yellow - beware![/caption]   * though some species such as the Humming-bird Hawk-moth have a 'tongue' which it uses to sip nectar

The first few weeks of owning a patch of woodland feel like the beginning of a long and special relationship. Every discovery is new; each adventure a first. A wood reveals it secrets slowly.   We’ve already tramped round every corner of the wood, tearing our shins on brambles, sniffing at fungi, clambering round stumps and totting up the oak, hazel, maple, cherry and rowan that thrive under our canopy of pine and larch. We’ve sat and looked and listened in all weathers, at every time of day. Starting a list of birds was the first thing to do: a mewing buzzard overhead, marsh tits pitching in the roving tit flock, the tap of woodpecker and nuthatch. Autumn – though this year so mild and late – soon announced itself with a first skein of pink-footed geese calling high and unseen over the wood, the first redwing chattering at the wood edge… sounds and colours change; the big wheel keeps on turning… We have always loved moths, for their beauty, their ubiquity, their astonishing variety. Moths range in size from the tiny micros whose larvae leave scribbled signatures across the leaves in which they live, to the powerful hawkmoths or that mythic blue-underwinged beauty the Clifden Nonpareil, a creature practically the size of a small bat, and probably the most sought-after moth among the old collectors with, in some years, just a single individual found across the country. For there’s also a rich and often eccentric history of moth recording in this country with most of the larger moths – the macros - having evocative vernacular names (though don’t confuse your Bright-line Brown-eye with a Brown-line Bright-eye!), and an array of techniques for acquiring them from pupa digging, plastering tree trunks with mixtures of treacle and rum, to light. Nowadays, moths are generally photographed and released rather than pinned; recording them is an excellent way of assessing the biodiversity of a site or tracking population changes. It was clearly time to break out the old moth trap.   And so it was that this September for the first time in years we dusted down the generator, filled the trap with fresh egg boxes for the anticipated moths to settle on, spread out our white sheet in a promising looking glade, and hoped to goodness that our 125W mercury vapour bulb would still fire up after all these years… As night came the light shed unfamiliar shadows through the wood; we waited, net in hand, taking care not to look directly at the blazing UV light; waited with a palpable sense of anticipation… what secret would the wood reveal? At first, nothing. And then a first furtive fluttering across the clearing to the trap – probably a Common Marbled Carpet though I’d have to check – and a plumper-bodied moth, and me there wracking my brains: it’s a noctuid, sure, but I’m so rusty – what’s-it-called? Flame? Flame Shoulder? Setaceous Hebrew Character…? ‘What the hell was that?’ said Beth Something ridiculously large had flapped out of the shadows and vanished. Knelt at the trap, I’d glimpsed it too from the corner of my eye. Could it be a hawkmoth on our very first trap, that would be very cool! I grabbed the net; we stood back and waited. I knew we had something beyond the ordinary when Beth yelled ‘There it is!’ and I swung the net and captured it on a second sweep. It was big all right! Anxious not to lose our catch, whatever it was, we shut ourselves in the toolshed and peered into the gently-opening net with our torch… The moth was the shape of a vulcan, practically size of a small bat, and more beautiful than anyone can do justice to: a marbled, lichenous beauty, zig-zagged and pocked and dabbed with greys and whites and blacks and – look! – when those forewings flick open an underwing black and banded with an impossible flash of blue… ‘It’s a Blue Underwing,’ we cried, ‘A Clifden Nonpareil…!’ An entry in my Aurelian’s Fireside Companion describes the experience soberly: ‘For a moment or two we gazed at it in speechless admiration, fearing almost to breathe lest it take flight…’.  I suspect we used a few more expletives than that!   And what a secret to reveal; our first trap in the new wood and we caught probably the best moth we could ever hope to find. One truly without compare.  Soon after the generator packed in; we were plunged into darkness. 2022, it transpires, has been a record year for Clifden Nonpareils, as it has been for many rare moths. Our Nonpareil could have been a wanderer from further south in England where a population has now reestablished itself on aspen and poplar after decades of extinction – or (and I find this the more romantic possibility) it could have been a migrant from the east, flapping its way across the North Sea to our northerly inland wood, and revealing itself, albeit briefly, to its astonished and delighted admirers…  By torchlight, we placed the moth on a tree stump, astounded to see something we’d always dreamt of finding. It sat there for a moment, as though contemplative, then showed a flash of blue petticoat as it shivered its huge and brindled grey wings. Shivered again. And flew off into the night. What will the seasons bring?

A fungi fanatic with a camera and a macro lens is never bored outdoors. At least, that’s how I tried to console myself when left stranded at a rural train station in East Kent having just missed my hourly train by a matter of minutes and realising that the next one was delayed by a further half hour. A brief wander around the environs to kill time proved me right when I came across a cluster of small grey mushrooms getting up to 2cm in cap diameter growing amongst the moss on a raised grassy patch at the far end of the platform. The mossy substrate, the indented cap and the widely-spaced gills running down the stem made identification a relatively straightforward business – these were part of the Arrhenia genus, which depending on the species can adopt either a pleurotoid (literally “side-ear form”) form, like the soft brackets we see with oyster mushrooms, or an omphalinoid form, from the Greek word ‘omphalos’ for belly button, with a central stem and decurrent gills running down it and an umbrella-shaped cap with a deep central depression.  [caption id="attachment_39104" align="aligncenter" width="675"] The Moss Navel in classic omphalinoid form with an indented cap and decurrent gills.[/caption] Looking at the spores back at home under the microscope corroborated the initial suspicion that these were Arrhenia rickenii, the Moss Navel, which according to its entry on the First Nature website is “a rarely recorded species, probably due at least in part to its small size and the tendency to be obscured by mosses” – and the fact that it is found in such nondescript liminal places as rural train stations, no doubt. There are numerous species of fungi that can be found growing on moss. Let us for now, however, ignore the tiny disc-like ascomycetes and other even more microscopic “bryophilous fungi” in which the interest is so niche that any information is limited to such specialist sites as this one, and instead focus on a handful of the more obvious mushroom-shaped ones. Most sources will refer to mushrooms such as the Moss Navel as saprophytic, meaning they derive their nutrition from decaying organic material, but with many species associating exclusively with particular species of mosses, many suspect this relationship between fungi and host is probably more complicated, as I alluded to in last month’s post on waxcaps. Yes, to know your bryophilous fungi, you often have to know your bryophytes. And what better place to start than following this link to The British Bryological Society... [caption id="attachment_39105" align="aligncenter" width="675"] The widely-spaced decurrent gills of the Moss Navel.[/caption] The initial issue I had with identifying my find was that different Arrhenia species are found alongside different mosses, and sometimes even lichens. Arrhenia peltigerina, for example, is found alongside the leafy Dog Lichen (Peltigera species), and hence its common name is the Lichen Navel. Arrhenia spathulata, a pleurotoid gill-less species known as the Spatulate Oysterling, is restricted to the moss Syntrichia ruraliformis (“star moss”) found growing on sand dunes or similar environments. The Moss Navel is not so fussy, it seems, which would probably make it one of the more common Arrhenia species, as is the case with another much smaller and orange-coloured omphaloid, the Orange Mosscap (Rickenella fibula). Actually both of these species were once considered, by dint of their shape, to be part of the same genus, with the Moss Navel previously known as Omphalina rickenii before its renaming to the current monicker in 1989, and the Orange Mosscap referred to as Omphalina fibula. [caption id="attachment_39106" align="aligncenter" width="675"] Orange Mosscap[/caption] The Orange Mosscap is a mushroom that is easily missed and just as easily misidentified, with a cap diameter of under a centimetre and often much less than that. Unlike Orange Mosscap, it isn’t just restricted to grassland mosses, such as those found in areas such as damp lawns and graveyards, but is commonly found on moss-covered tree stumps or fallen trunks.  While the cap and stem are orange and slightly translucent (the cap can wash out to a paler colour with age), the gills are white, and if you can get a close enough look at them using either a hand lens or a camera macro lens, you will notice that they are strongly decurrent, running down the slender stem and giving the whole mushroom a nail-shaped form. When up close and personal like this, one will also note that both cap and stem are covered in tiny bristles called cystidia, which are relatively large sterile cells found in the fruit bodies of gilled mushrooms that can aid identification. [caption id="attachment_39107" align="aligncenter" width="675"] The upper cap surface of the Orange Mosscap, covered in fine hairs that can also be seen on the stem.[/caption] The main lookalike mushroom that one is likely to confuse the Orange Mosscap with is the Orange Bonnet (Mycena acicula), whose orange cap ironically makes it the one of the most distinctive of the very difficult Mycena group of mushrooms to identify (see my previous posts on Frosty Bonnets and Rosy Bonnets).  The Orange Bonnet is quite a common find, and again very small, but while it is found in mossy areas, it is deciduous leaf and other woodland litter that is its substrate rather than the moss itself. The cap is pruinose, meaning with a dusty surface, rather than distinctly hairy, but it is the gills one needs to look at – these are adnexed or free rather than decurrent, meaning they are not attached to the stem at all. [caption id="attachment_39111" align="aligncenter" width="675"] The underside of the Orange Bonnet, with the adnexed gills distinguishing it from the decurrent gills of the Orange Mosscap.[/caption] Both Orange Mosscaps and Orange Bonnets have white gills and leave white spore prints, which will distinguish them from the final group of mushrooms to which they might be compared, those in the genus of Galerina. Many of this group fall within the LBM (‘little brown mushroom’) category that most mycologists and forages choose to overlook due to their insignificant size and nondescript appearance, but a few, such as the Moss Bell (Galerina hypnorum), the Veiled Bell (Galerina calyptrata), the Dwarf Bell (Galerina pumila) and the Hairy Leg Bell (Galerina vittiformis) among others, do have small orange caps and are found growing among similar mosses and mossy areas as our previous examples. These posts, incidentally, are not about foraging, but even though these mushrooms are not of a size to make them culinarily worthwhile, I would strongly advise against anyone ingesting them in the vain hope of some other form of more spiritual nourishment. Many Galerina species contain potentially deadly toxins, most notoriously the aptly-named Funeral Bell (Galerina marginata). [caption id="attachment_39110" align="aligncenter" width="675"] The dusty ‘pruinose’ surface of the Orange Bonnet.[/caption] The stem characteristics will provide some help of distinguishing the aforementioned Galerina species from the Orange Mosscaps and Orange Bonnets, and to some extent from one another – they are a lot more fibrous, many with white fibrils running longitudinally down the stipe, and some species have distinct rings around them beneath the cap. The bell-shaped striate cap also marks them out from the omphaloid characteristics of the Orange Mosscap. [caption id="attachment_39109" align="aligncenter" width="675"] A grassland Galerina in moss, possibly a Hairy Leg Bell. Note the fibrous stem and orange gill colour.[/caption] But again, and one cannot emphasise this enough, the best way to work out what you are looking at is to go straight for the gills and spores. Galerina have light orange to rust-brown adnexed gills, neither white nor decurrent, and if you leave them on a piece of paper to get a spore print, the deposit will be accordingly orange to brown, not white. And the fail-proof way of characterising any of these would be to look at the spore size and shape using a microscope and compare against other references such as the First Nature website. This post is essentially an ode to moss and all that live amongst them, to a substrate that in the dampness of Autumn provides a rich host for a number of species and which one might well want to take a closer look at when seeing what’s about in the woods or pastures. [caption id="attachment_39114" align="aligncenter" width="675"] The Orange Mosscap (Rickenella fibula)[/caption]

Moss puts a brake on peak flow and flooding. “Moors for the future” have been working in the Peak District to investigate the run off of water after rain.  Often after a storm, rain water will run off a hillside unimpeded so that communities downstream in valleys are vulnerable to flooding.  Moors for a future have been planting upland areas (on Kinder Scout) with Sphagnum moss.  They have planted some 50,000 plants of the moss.  Prior to the planting of the moss, the surface might be bare, and rainwater would run straight off.  It was found that the moss dramatically slowed the run off of water, and the volume of water discharged from the hillside, preventing rivers from becoming inundated.  Each moss plant can hold up to twenty times its own weight of water.  The sphagnum moss also protects the underlying peat, so that new layers of material can accumulate - allowing for carbon sequestration. Help from vegetables ? More and more bacteria are now resistant to many types of antibiotics, consequently it is increasingly difficult to treat certain types of bacterial infection / disease.  In some cases, this is due to the production of a biofilm.  Bacteria grow on many surfaces within our bodies and as they grow and multiply they may encase themselves in a matrix of extra-cellular material that they produce ( as seen in Pseudomonas sp). Research workers at the Ben Gurion University have found that certain compounds from cruciferous vegetables, such as broccoli, can break down these bacterial films. Cruciferous vegetables include Cabbages, Cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, Kale, Radish, Kohlrabi and Mustard. The chemical DIM (3,3 diindolylmethane) was able to disrupt the biofilm.  When introduced to an infected, wound, it was found to speed up the healing process. It is hoped that further work will lead to a commercially viable product for the treatment of certain infections. (Thanks to Ulleo on Pixabay for adjacent image). ‘Help Signals’ from oil seed rape. Oilseed rape (or rapeseed, Brassica napus) is a major crop in many parts of the country.  It provides an oil and is also contributes to animal feedstuffs and biofuels.  Great swathes of the country turn yellow when the plant is in flower during the summer months.  These monocultures are ideal for the animals that feed on the plants, these range from insects, to nematodes, slugs and wood pigeons   One particular pest of oil seed rape is the Common Pollen Beetle (Brassicogethes aeneus).  The female beetles lay eggs in the flower buds of and the larvae develop within the flowers.  Both adults and larvae feed on the pollen and nectar in the flowers. Plants have limited means of fighting attackers.  They may construct structural defences, as discussed in the woodlands blog, or they may use chemical defences.  When bitten by a marauding herbivore some plants emit volatile organic compounds (VOC’s).  As the pollen beetles feed, the rapeseed releases VOCs which attract the attention of other insect - notably those that will lay their eggs into the larvae of the pollen beetles. These insects are usually from the same family as bees, wasps and ants - the Hymenoptera (insects with membranous wings and a ‘narrow waist’.   The pollen beetle larvae are then ‘eaten’ from the inside by the developing parasitoid larva.  This effectively constitutes a form of biological control.  Interestingly, the pollen beetles preferred to lay eggs into rapeseed plants plants growing with high levels of N fertilisation, whereas their parasitoids favoured more moderate levels of N fertilization.  This work was undertaken  at the Estonian University of Life Sciences. Finding the flowers. Research at the University of Exeter has shown that bees can distinguish between various flowers through a combination of colour and pattern.  This selectivity is achieved despite the ‘acuity’ of a bee’s vision being quite low (about a 100 times lower than ours) - this means they can only see the pattern of a flower when they are quite close ( a matter of centimetres).  The researchers analysed a large amount of data on plants and visiting bee behaviour, and experiments involving artificial shapes and colours.  One particular finding was the importance of the contrast between the outside of the flower and the plant’s foliage.  This seemed to help bees quickly find their way to the flowers.

The results of this year’s Big Butterfly Count have now been published and the ‘top’ 5 butterflies are the gatekeeper, the large white, the small white, the meadow brown and the red admiral.  The count is a UK-wide survey that aims to provide a measure of the state / health of our environment by simply counting the number and type of butterflies (and some day-flying moths) we see in our gardens and parks. The good news is that the Gatekeeper is making something of a comeback, being the most spotted butterfly in the count.  The numbers of the Common Blue, Holly Blue and the Comma are also ‘on the up’.  The Comma has been making a slow comeback for some years.  This is associated with the Comma extending its range northwards.  Extension of range is also seen in the Holly Blue, it is thought to be associated with climate change.  Some twenty years ago, it was rarely to be seen in Scotland, but it was recorded in Edinburgh in 2006, then Ayr in 2008 and now has spread across large areas of Scotland.  [caption id="attachment_24954" align="aligncenter" width="600"] Comma butterfly : photo by A J Symons.[/caption] The Jersey Tiger Moth is another species that is extending its range. Once it was to be found on Devon’s south coast, but it has spread north and east.  It is now to be seen in gardens and parks in the Greater London area. These moths ‘like’ gardens, hedgerows and disturbed / rough ground. In coastal areas, they may be seen on cliffs and the upper reaches of a beach.  The caterpillars of this moth feed mainly on ground ivy, white dead-nettle, bramble and the common nettle.    There are differences between butterflies and moth, but there is no hard and fast rule to distinguish between them. Butterflies usually have ‘club-shaped’ antennae, whilst many moths have feathery or tapering ones.   Butterflies normally fold their wings vertically over their backs,  moths generally place their wings horizontally when at rest (but not all). Whilst this summer’s results offer some hope, and the warmth of this summer’s weather might be thought to have favoured butterflies, the overall trend / pattern of butterfly numbers is one of decline - for example, numbers of the Red Admiral and Meadow Brown are down, sadly a pattern seen in many insect species. The loss of suitable habitats, such as meadows and hedgerows, is thought to be a major factor in this decline.

Our wood in the Scottish Highlands is an amazing place to go foraging for fungi. Last year we had bagful’s of Chanterelles so we hoped for the same when we went up last week. Like every owner we have met, we do not get up there as often as we would like, but we had great expectations that there would be tons of tasty toadstools, more “Chants”, some Boletes, maybe a Blusher or two and hopefully our favourite:  Penny Buns! (Ceps, Porcini are other names for them). We have a natural Birch Wood (near Loch Ness), with a few other tree species thrown in like Rowans, Juniper and some alien Western Hemlocks (good cover when it rains).  At this time of year when the Birches are on the turn, it is just glorious. The greens, golds and vibrant yellows are interspersed with the fading Purple Heather and the odd bright red Fly Agaric or one of the many Russula species adding further interest and detail. As usual, checking the trailcams was interesting, mainly Roe and Sika Deer. I have two there but forgot where one was....a common occurrence.   I found Hedgehog Mushrooms, some Scarletina Boletes, Birch Polypore and Chaga; the Chants were scarce but enough for a hearty breakfast.  I had all but given up on the Buns, but found a really tiny one hiding under the heather. There had been more but they had been eaten, some snipped off at the base and one fat one whose cap was gone and the stem mangled beyond use.  I had a suspect in mind; reviewing the trailcam footage at home confirmed my suspicions.    A Wild Boar ate my Buns!

In 1820, John Keats famous poem “To Autumn’ was published.  Its opening line often serves to describe autumn as ‘The season of mists and mellow fruitfulness’.  Indeed, Autumn has arrived here.  Woodlands have been transformed into a 'tableau' of red, yellows, and oranges as the leaves are shed and the woodland floor has become a veritable fungal jungle, (as Jasper has described).  Hawthorn and other bushes are laden with berries, conkers and acorns are generously strewn across woodland floors, squirrels are eating hazelnuts (and hiding them as a winter food store).  But this cornucopia of fruits and seeds may be in response to the long, hot and very dry summer we have experienced.  Trees and shrubs have been stressed by the heat and drought. Some have responded by mobilising their reserves / efforts into producing more fruits and seeds, to ensure that they pass on their genes to the next generation.   Different trees are responding in other ways. Some are ‘holding on’ to their leaves for longer, whilst others (like some birches and rowans) have already shed theirs - in order to limit the damage from wilting and water loss during the intense heat and drought of summer.  [caption id="attachment_39130" align="aligncenter" width="675"] Autumnal colour[/caption] Blackberries appeared early this Summer and few are to be seen this Autumn, some animals (like the dormouse) will search in vain. [caption id="attachment_39026" align="aligncenter" width="675"] Black Bryony berries (photo by Art Symons)[/caption] Will this Autumn be long and mild? It may extend into the traditional winter months. There is also the threat of extreme weather events (like Storm Arwen that brought severe winds across the UK last November).  Whilst we might welcome mild weather (with the high price of gas and electricity), it could be mean an increase in bacterial and fungal infections, not only of plants but also affecting overwintering insects - tucked up in cocoons and pupal cases. Prolonged cold periods, coupled with frosts limit the spread of such infections.  The cold of winter is also the traditional signal for animals like hedgehogs to hibernate.  If they are still active in winter when food is scarce, then they will lose condition and possibly starve to death.  Milder weather in Autumn and Winter also affects the migratory behaviour of birds, some birds may choose to overwinter here.  Some seeds need to experience cold temperatures before they will germinate in the following Spring. Climate change and severe weather events are here to stay until there is a coordinated and concerted effort to reduce greenhouse emissions on a global scale.  On a local scale, our gardens (which represent some 400,000 hectares of land) can make a contribution by encouraging wildlife / pollinators and promoting biodiversity.  Gardens can also help to some extent with extreme rainfall.  During heavy rain, water runs off hard surfaces and into the drains, these may also deal with sewage.  When the drains are overwhelmed by storm water, sewage is discharged into our rivers (and the sea).   Gardens can help by  reducing hard landscaping, so that rain can soak into the soil instead of running off into the drains making use of water butts.  They capture water, so it does not enter the drainage system.  It is also there to use when the garden needs water (and there is a hose pipe ban) mulching the soil with a layer of plant material. It is an effective method of conserving water in the soil and it reduces surface runoff, increasing the infiltration / penetration of water into the soil.  It helps keep the soil moist in times of drought, and helps reduce run off during heavy rainfall.  Particularly important when planting young trees / shrubs. [caption id="attachment_38957" align="aligncenter" width="675"] a light mulch (in Art's garden)[/caption]