The diet of bees has changed over the years.   In the past, bees were able to forage and collect pollen and nectar from a variety of plants.  With the spread of highly mechanised agriculture, increasing urbanisation and road network - now their options are somewhat limited.  Large fields of monocultures, for example, of oil seed rape are now common. Whilst oil seed rape is a good source for foraging bees and bumblebees, they need to collect nectar and pollen from a variety of sources so that they get a range of nutrients, such as the essential amino acids.  Without these particular amino acids, the growth and development of bees is affected, as is their resistance to disease and their ability to raise the brood.  It is important that our pollinators are able to find a range of plants / pollen to provide all their nutrients. Whilst wild flowers [aka weeds], like dandelions, ragworts, and clovers are a lifeline for bees and bumblebees, recent research at the University of East Anglia has shown that woodlands can offer important habitats for bees, isuch as the leaf canopy.  The research team studied 15 woodland sites in agricultural areas across Norfolk (in Spring).  Within the woodlands, they looked at the bee activity in  the understorey  the woodland edge  and at different levels in the tree canopy.   They found that bees were active high up in the sunlit tree canopy, and their activity was particularly high near flowering sycamore trees.  Red tailed bumblebees (Bombus lapidarius) were busier in the canopies than elsewhere.  The understorey and woodland edges were also significant contributors to bee activity.  This study emphasises the importance of woodland habitats for the wild bee community.  

The woodlands blog has previously reported on the damage being wreaked by bark beetles.  These beetles may be small (less than a centimetre in length) but their effects on the western forests of North America has been immense. Some areas have lost 90% of their conifers.   Outbreaks of these beetles have been increasing in size and severity.  Indeed, across Europe, the eurasian bark beetle (Its typographus) has killed millions of conifers. Whilst bark is broadly protective, it can also offer a home to certain insects.  Bark beetles lay their eggs just below the bark so that when the larvae hatch, they can feed on the nutrient-rich living tissue of the cambium and phloem. Consequently, the tree's transport systems begin to fail.  The beetles may also introduce disease-causing fungi and bacteria. Ageing stands of trees coupled with warmer winters, which help the overwintering stage of the insect, have contributed to the spread of bark beetles. .  Conifers, by their nature, are not defenceless.  When a pine tree is cut / wounded, it produces a pale yellow and sticky fluid - RESIN to seal the cut or wound [see above image]. This material helps prevent the entry of pests or pathogens, and can stem water loss. The resin may trap insect invaders as  witnessed by those trapped in time capsules of amber.  Resin is rich in terpenes, these are used in the building of many complex organic molecules and contribute to the make-up of the volatile oils, produced by many plants.  Terpenes are made from units of isoprene, which has the formula C5H8. So the basic formula of a terpene is (C5H8)n, where n is the number of isoprene units that have been joined together.  Terpenes are also readily available in coniferous oils, which contribute to the unique smell of a pine forest or a burning log. [caption id="attachment_40973" align="alignleft" width="300"] Old and dying tree[/caption] These ‘chemical defences’ should trap, poison or deter an insect invader, such as the bark beetle.  But it would seem that bark beetles ‘don’t mind’ these defences. Research suggests that the eurasian bark beetle might have an ally.  Certain fungi (from the genus - Grosmannia) are found in association with these beetles. When the  Grosmannia fungi infect spruce trees they alter the chemical profile the trees, so that infected trees produce different volatile chemicals - ie they smell different.  The bark beetles are able to detect these differences and exploit this ‘breach’ of the trees natural defences.  The unique chemical profile of infected trees and the pheromones produced by the beetles probably help explain the swarming behaviour of the bark beetles.  A heavy beetle infestation results in the death of a tree. However, there is a possible positive in this rather sad tale.  At present, traps for bark beetles rely solely on using pheromones but if the pheromones can be combined with the chemicals produced by the fungi then it opens the door to more effective beetle traps.  

A recent article in the New Scientist suggests that staking newly planted trees may be pointless for trees that are planted in gardens and parks.  James Wong argues that stakes are often not needed because trees have a natural tendency to grow straight and vertical. Indeed, staking may cause damage because the tie that connects the post and the tree can cut into the tree.  Also the tie-up to the stake creates a weak point where a sapling can snap in high winds. Even if it doesn’t snap, it develops an unnaturally thick trunk at that point to stop it from breaking. Despite this, you might still want to use a stake in a garden or park for reasons unrelated to the growth of the tree - to avoid it being run over by a lawn mower or accidentally walked into. For forestry planting, using stakes is a very different matter. Stakes are easy to spot and help forestry contractors to find their new trees for weeding and for “beating up” - the odd phrase used by foresters to refer to replanting where trees have died. Using stakes can also help make the trees grow straight which is important for producing top-quality timber. However, the most important function of tree stakes in most new woodland planting is to keep tree guards vertical and securely in position. Most stakes for tree planting use treated softwood and are sawn, but there is a case for using longer-lasting sweet chestnut pales made by splitting. Such stakes are readily and cheaply available from suppliers in East Sussex and Kent. These stakes are strong and easier to bang into hard, stony ground. As well as being long-lasting, sweet chestnut does not need treating so for those using biodegradable tree guards and wanting to “leave no trace”, these may be the best stakes for new planting. Using untreated stakes like this avoids putting extra chemicals into the environment. Another option, often used for new planting of hedgerow trees, is using bamboo canes to hold the saplings and their guards, usually very light spiral guards. Canes as stakes have the added advantage that they are light and easy to transport: when you are planting any new trees there is lots of material to move around the site - guards, young trees, stakes and spades. getting ready for some serious planting  

The end of lockdown, and the peace that came with it, was what made me want some natural solitude as the world got busy again. Having a share of a near 100-acre ancient wood should provide that given there are no public footpaths through it, a locked gate and farm land all around. It was late summer when I ‘got the keys’ and I was recovering from major surgery, so over the autumn into winter I’ve pottered and observed.  Each visit the place looks different as the leaves fall, different fungi come and go, and the wood is deluged by each storm. Storm Babet blew down the largest silver birch tree. The kids discovered it – wading through the thick brown bracken in a clearing I’d yet to explore. They had fun running along it. So far, no more have come down, and I’m glad I bought the Beech Tree wood owners insurance before the first storms hit. There is about one acre of older pine that stand majestic, almost as a guard for the younger trees beyond. We’ve re-planted our Christmas tree here. I hope it takes! Then it’s a grassy break, that allows machinery to manage a drainage dyke, across a wooden bridge and into the 4 acres of dense young birch coppice. This needs a lot of thinning out, if owt else is to grow there. The west boundary is a huge sheep field and the sun pours in. It wasn’t until my fifth visit that I managed to get through to a far corner of the plot and find another small clearing, where clearly deer had been laying on the dead bracken. I hesitate to say basking in the winter sun ….....  in Yorkshire! There’s evidence of badger setts too but none seem active. Woodcock abound and I will have to control the dog in spring. It isn’t silent but I’m surprised there isn’t a greater dawn chorus when I visit. Perhaps the buzzards and red kites are scaring smaller birds off.   I certainly hear those birds of prey about. Is this a sign of climate change or a lack of tree diversity? To help the both I’ve planted some cuttings of hazel and walnut, and a variety of seeds – conkers, acorns, sloes, sweet chestnuts, sycamore and walnut, but goodness knows if anything will germinate, or whether the squirrels have had a feast!  It was a rushed affair as I wasn’t completely recovered from surgery when I did it. There are lots of plots within the greater wood and I’ve met many of my neighbours, who are all very friendly. At least one is an outstanding wildlife expert and I’m sure there’s lots to learn from them.  I don’t have great plans as yet other than increasing the diversity of trees. A fig tree at home next to a west facing wall does really well.   Will the west facing aspect enable similar here?  There seems to be some quite large structures within the wider wood. On my plot, there’s a small hut and I don’t have plans for anything more. I just want to observe for a year, open up a couple of paths through the jungle and create somewhere flat to camp. There is wonderful solitude and the dog loves it – even though she has come back with ticks. Neighbours have told me their 'tick stories' and I’ve noted that they wear thick overalls and boots.   Probably best  if I string up a hammock to watch the sunsets!  

  There are now more deer in the UK than there have been for 1,000 years.  Probably between 650,000 and 2,000,000, of which about half live in Scotland. Dormice like sleeping and can sleep for up to 7 months a year. UK woodlands are home to half the world’s flowering bluebells. There are 15,000 species of fungi, on land, in water and even on plants and animals. Swallows migrate annually to Southern Africa travelling 6,000 miles twice a year. Grey squirrels have become a problem because they were released deliberately, in 1876. Half the deer species in the UK were escapees - three of our six deer species, being Muntjac, Sika, Chinese Water Deer. Conifers have been around so long that they were dinosaur food - about 300 million years. The oldest British trees predate Christianity, Islam and Buddhism. One of the oldest is the Fortingall Yew in Scotland, estimated to be as much as 3,000 years old. Not all conifers have cones - the Juniper, for example, has fruits that are tiny, round, fleshy and berry-like.  

NaturScot is Scotland’s nature agency.  It monitors and reports on all aspects of the natural environment.  It has published a report on its terrestrial bird breeding species and it is a somewhat mixed report. Some of the most ‘famous’ species associated with Scotland, such as the black grouse have declined significantly during the period of study (1994 - 2019).  The grouse population has halved, and the kestrel, greenfinch and lapwing populations are also in decline.  Woodland populations of Capercaillie have also fallen.  The largest grouse in the world, the capercaillie was once widespread but suffered local extinction in the eighteenth century and was reintroduced in the C19th. It is now only found in old pine forests and mainly in the Cairngorms National Park. The Capercaillie are now red-listed and protected in the UK. [The Pine Marten which feeds in part on the eggs of game birds was almost lost in the nineteenth century, due to farmers and gamekeepers trapping them.] The fall in bird numbers has been associated with changes in climate, notably warmer and wetter weather coupled with extreme events (such as flooding and heat waves).  Whilst some species have suffered as a result of the changing weather, others seem to have prospered, including some that do not ‘traditonally’ make their way to Scotland.  The great spotted woodpecker is one such species, its numbers have increase by 500%, bullfinch and red numbers have also increased.  Gold finches and magpies are now more common on farmlands in Scotland. various measures could help offset some of these declines,.such as  the diversification of woodland (more tree species) restoration of peatlands Creation of habitats on farmland legal predator control deer exclusion to allow regeneration removal of deer fencing, (where feasible) as capercaillie and black grouse are known to fly into this and injured as a result. One example of the benefits of deer fencing is to be seen in the Glen Lyone woodlands.  Historically, this area was part of the royal hunting grounds of Cluanie and was home to capercaillies, wildcats and lynx.    Nineteenth century maps show a significant area of woodland, but by the 1990’s less than a hundred of the ancient pines were left.  The oldest pine in the area dates back to the C14th century, and many others are several centuries old.  However, the area was heavily grazed by deer, which reduces regeneration as young seedlings / saplings get eaten.  Now “Trees for Life” have erected new deer fencing, which hopefully will allow natural regeneration of pine forest in the area.  Calendonian Forest once covered much of the Highlands but now less than 2% of it survives.  Full details of this project (and a video) may be found here ; https://treesforlife.org.uk/scotlands-oldest-wild-pine-saved/

Many organisms help to disperse seeds in woodlands or forests, from squirrels, birds, bears, foxes, rabbits.  The fruits / seeds may be eaten and pass through the gut of the animal or may be caught in their fur, or stuck to them (like the seeds of mistletoe or cleavers).  However, there is another 'army of helpers'  - ANTS.  Ants may disperse seeds in two distinct ways.  The first way is  through the activity of harvester ants.  Like squirrels and other ‘gatherers’, harvester ants move through the wood or forest gathering seeds and transporting them back to their colonies.  As they transport the seeds, some get dropped or lost on the way.  Others may be ‘cached’ / stored,  in or near the colony for later consumption, but then are ‘forgotten’.  Such seeds may later germinate and establish themselves somewhere away from the parent plant.  This accidental dispersal is sometimes referred to  as  ‘seed predation’. a second method of seed dispersal by ants involves a more intimate association between particular plants and specific ant species.Some plants, when they form the seed, produce an 'extra structure', attached to the seed; an ELAIOSOME or fat / oil body.  This elaiosome lures or attracts ants to the seed.  Wood anemone and cow-wheat (Melampyrum pratense) seeds have an elaiosome. [caption id="" align="aligncenter" width="512"] cow wheat ; thanks to Kristian Peters -- Fabelfroh 09:39, 3 October 2006 (UTC), CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons[/caption] Ants need some fat, and fat-rich food is hard to come by in the woodland setting.  The ant carries off the seed to the colony, where the fat body is eaten (often by the ant larvae).   The seed is then left and can later germinate. This interaction between plant and ant is termed  MYRMECOCHORY. It is a form of mutualism, as there are benefits to this arrangement for both ‘partners’. The seeds of the plant are ‘protected’ from seed predation by birds and rodents.   The seed is dispersed from the parent plant, ants bearing a seed for some 70 metres have been recorded.  The seed is then (often) deposited in a nutrient rich microhabitat. The ant gains a ‘tailor made’ food material rich in fat, an energy rich material.  In some areas, such as Australia, the seed may be protected from fire as it is buried at some depth. Myrmecochory is seen in many species in north eastern America, but also Europe, Australia and Africa. wood ants https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZVGcl4Om-C8&t=40s    

Out for a walk after the various festivities?  Perhaps you might be able to help the People’s Trust for Endangered Species by undertaking a hedgerow survey.   Across the UK there are many, many hedgerows.  Hedgerows can Provide shelter, homes, perches for a variety of animals,  Food for mammals, birds and invertebrates in the form of flowers, berries and nuts.   Harbour insects that act as important pollinators of wild flowers and crops. Help to reduce flooding and soil erosion,  Help mitigate air and water pollution levels  Store carbon  Act as corridors along which animals, such as hedgehogs and dormice can travel across the countryside. The Trust is looking for volunteers to fill in a survey form and record features of their chosen hedge, such as  the height,  width,  structure and  which tree species are present.  The results will help the trust to build a picture of the health of our hedgerows and how they are changing over time.  To find out more and to take part in the Great British Hedgerow Survey, visit the PTES website for more information : https://hedgerowsurvey.ptes.org/about-our-hedge-surveys