When you look across cultivated fields you are usually surveying an unrelenting monoculture  -of earth or wheat or grass. Lots of pesticides and fertilizers are used and there are regular assaults by bladed machines.  It's bleak for wildlife, whether plants or animals.  But nature is resourceful and clings on where it can.  And within intensive agricultural areas there is a pattern to the small oases of diversity. There is more diversity where an obstacle stops the machines in their track  Sometimes that's a linear feature like a river or a hedge or maybe just a fence, but often it's just a sticky-up object. A tree, a pylon, a pole, or even a wind-turbine.   At the base of objects sticking up in fields you often find a clump of plants, sometimes flowers, and shelter for small mammals and birds.  Taking the train through northern France recently, I realised how extremely industrialised their countryside has become and it's the same in most of Lincolnshire.  Hedges have been removed, single trees are rare and every effort is directed to increasing wheat / crop production.  Diversity is not just discouraged but it is seen as the enemy - a small copse or hedge can harbour swarms of crop-eaters so these have usually been grubbed out (as have many ponds (see the woodlands blog on ghost ponds in Norfolk).  Whatever the spin and rhetoric, the large scale farmer is at odds with biodiversity. The soil is a highly lucrative resource where farmers want to maximise their returns.  Increasingly, they use modern technology with tractors guided by SatNav, planting twice a year, with harvesting dictated by accurate weather forecasts and sophisticated seedlings being protected and fed by brutally efficient pesticides and fertilisers.  Lip service is often paid to the farmers' role in looking after the countryside but in reality most of them are businessmen and businesswoman wanting to optimise returns.  Farming businesses' borrowings and financial objectives don't allow them to spend too long worrying about biodiversity or the "hundred harvests" concern - that, when treated badly, the soil will be mostly gone (e.g fenland blows) or made unusable within 50 or 100 years. Refuge is an important concept in ecology: the idea that an organism gets protection from predation by hiding in inaccessible areas. Coral reefs are an example of habitats where animals can take refuge, and rainforests contain numerous physical refuges. [The concept of refuges or refugia has developed in recent years].   In the case of the arable fields of Britain,  it seems as if it is mainly the "sticky-up things" and linear features  (hedgerows etc.) which provide refuge, but not just from animal predation but from humans and their machinery.  Nature is reacting to humans as if they are the predators. There are thousands of objects in the countryside which act as refuges - it's a benign and unintended consequence of landscape clutter.  For example signposts, pillar boxes, mobile phone masts, abandoned fence posts, and even discarded farm equipment.  These objects can also offer a structure for plants to climb up in their quest for sunlight and they can provide shelter from wind, but mostly they offer protection against the farmer and the machines.  Unfortunately, the natural human instinct is usually to tidy up everything in sight, which often works to the detriment of biodiversity.  It would be better to protect vegetation and stop mammals from being mashed up by mowers / machinery, and it is often the residual sticky-up features that protect these small refuges.  Perhaps we need less rural de-cluttering of the British landscape, and more ‘mini refuges’.  

In 1820, John Keats famous poem “To Autumn’ was published.  Its opening line often serves to describe autumn as ‘The season of mists and mellow fruitfulness’.  Indeed, Autumn has arrived here.  Woodlands have been transformed into a 'tableau' of red, yellows, and oranges as the leaves are shed and the woodland floor has become a veritable fungal jungle, (as Jasper has described).  Hawthorn and other bushes are laden with berries, conkers and acorns are generously strewn across woodland floors, squirrels are eating hazelnuts (and hiding them as a winter food store).  But this cornucopia of fruits and seeds may be in response to the long, hot and very dry summer we have experienced.  Trees and shrubs have been stressed by the heat and drought. Some have responded by mobilising their reserves / efforts into producing more fruits and seeds, to ensure that they pass on their genes to the next generation.   Different trees are responding in other ways. Some are ‘holding on’ to their leaves for longer, whilst others (like some birches and rowans) have already shed theirs - in order to limit the damage from wilting and water loss during the intense heat and drought of summer.  [caption id="attachment_39130" align="aligncenter" width="675"] Autumnal colour[/caption] Blackberries appeared early this Summer and few are to be seen this Autumn, some animals (like the dormouse) will search in vain. [caption id="attachment_39026" align="aligncenter" width="675"] Black Bryony berries (photo by Art Symons)[/caption] Will this Autumn be long and mild? It may extend into the traditional winter months. There is also the threat of extreme weather events (like Storm Arwen that brought severe winds across the UK last November).  Whilst we might welcome mild weather (with the high price of gas and electricity), it could be mean an increase in bacterial and fungal infections, not only of plants but also affecting overwintering insects - tucked up in cocoons and pupal cases. Prolonged cold periods, coupled with frosts limit the spread of such infections.  The cold of winter is also the traditional signal for animals like hedgehogs to hibernate.  If they are still active in winter when food is scarce, then they will lose condition and possibly starve to death.  Milder weather in Autumn and Winter also affects the migratory behaviour of birds, some birds may choose to overwinter here.  Some seeds need to experience cold temperatures before they will germinate in the following Spring. Climate change and severe weather events are here to stay until there is a coordinated and concerted effort to reduce greenhouse emissions on a global scale.  On a local scale, our gardens (which represent some 400,000 hectares of land) can make a contribution by encouraging wildlife / pollinators and promoting biodiversity.  Gardens can also help to some extent with extreme rainfall.  During heavy rain, water runs off hard surfaces and into the drains, these may also deal with sewage.  When the drains are overwhelmed by storm water, sewage is discharged into our rivers (and the sea).   Gardens can help by  reducing hard landscaping, so that rain can soak into the soil instead of running off into the drains making use of water butts.  They capture water, so it does not enter the drainage system.  It is also there to use when the garden needs water (and there is a hose pipe ban) mulching the soil with a layer of plant material. It is an effective method of conserving water in the soil and it reduces surface runoff, increasing the infiltration / penetration of water into the soil.  It helps keep the soil moist in times of drought, and helps reduce run off during heavy rainfall.  Particularly important when planting young trees / shrubs. [caption id="attachment_38957" align="aligncenter" width="675"] a light mulch (in Art's garden)[/caption]  

It is depressing to pick up a paper or turn on the news to be met with a catalogue of distressing and difficult stories.  There is also the overarching problem of global warning and climate change.  Only recently, there have been reports of flooding in Sydney after torrential rain, fires are springing up again in Colorado and other States, and India experienced a heat wave (combined with a drought), with some cities experiencing temperatures of 40o+C.  This has resulted in the deaths of individuals, and as the heat wave occurred in the final weeks of the wheat growing season it has killed many crops before harvest.  In Balochistan, the peach and apple harvest has been severely impacted. Here in the UK, there are a number of problems, indeed we have been described as “one of the most nature-depleted countries in the world”.  We have lost plant and animal species, such losses could lead us into an ‘ecological recession’. This occurs when ecosystems systems lack the diversity needed to function well. Much of the damage to (or loss of) our ecosystems is associated with the industrial revolution followed by the  intensification of mechanised farming. The 1950’s and 1960’s witnessed the loss of vast tracts of hedges and the removal of small copses to increase the area for farming / food production, and allow the use of heavy duty mechanised machinery.  There was also the extension of road networks - motorways etc. and urban sprawl /development.  Though woodlands and forests were being eroded long before the industrial revolution; woodland, forest and pasture covered much more of the land than now. There were areas of ‘wilderness’ that were home to animals and plants that have long since gone or are now very rare - ranging from wolves, bears, to beavers and red squirrels. Whilst woodlands were and are havens for many plant and animal species, meadows and pastures have suffered too.  The PlantLife charity has suggested that the UK has lost some 97% of its wildflower meadows during the course of the last century and what remains could be under threat. Lowland meadows are rich sources of biodiversity, both plant and animal, they also store carbon in the soil and ‘knit’ the soil together, so that it is not subject to erosion. [caption id="attachment_38489" align="aligncenter" width="700"] A meadow, partly mown and partly 'wild'.[/caption] Many species are dependent on these habitats, but with the expansion of agriculture and construction of motorways - the landscape has become fragmented and many species cannot across the formidable barriers.  The Scottish primrose is now only to be found on the north coast of Scotland and Orkney, and some orchids are described ‘as just hanging on’.  Species like the common blue butterfly is reliant of bird’s foot trefoil, Greater Bird’s-foot-trefoil, Black Medick and white clover for food for its caterpillars.  The great yellow bumblebee is sadly now one of the rarest British bumblebees. It is limited to flower-rich areas in the Orkneys, Caithness and Sutherland. It is particularly associated with red clover. It is a large species, and was once widespread across the U.K. Creating space and opportunities for wild flowers has been PlantLife's foremost objective from “No mow May”, “Save nature on our roadside” (see the woodland blog here and here) ’Fight for sites” all of which aim to increase the number of sites for wild flowers and their pollinators to flourish.  The Scottish Government has been helping establish wildflower meadows at some of its national nature reserves - notably St Cyrus, Flanders Moss and Forvie, and they are working with PlantLife to create an action plan for Scotland’s grassland.  It is keen for farmers to be involved, offering areas of wild flowers on their farms.  By increasing the areas in which wild flowers (and their associated insects) can flourish, the connectivity can be restored (at least in part).  The creation of biological corridors allows plants and animals to move, which is particularly important in these times of climate change.  

Sadly, the world is losing species, both plant and animal, at a significant rate.  Indeed, some claim that we are now experiencing the sixth mass extinction.  In contrast to previous extinctions (the Permian extinction is thought to be due to an asteroid impact), the present loss of species is largely associated with a mix of direct and indirect human activities. These include :- destruction and fragmentation of habitats,  Exploitation fishing stocks and hunting (think dodo),  chemical pollution,  invasive / introduced species, and  human-caused global warming The loss of animal species has knock-on effects in terms of food chains and biodiversity. Plants are also affected as many rely on animals for the dispersal of their fruits and seeds.  In times of global warming, it is essential that plants can reach new areas that are suitable for their growth.  If not, they are stuck in areas where they may not be able to survive in the changed / changing conditions.  This could mean that plant species are lost, together with the ‘ecosystem services’ that they provide (be it food, timber, carbon storage, flood mitigation etc).  Seed dispersal is also important in terms of recovery from ecological disasters, like wildfires.  Natural forest regrowth usually happens through seed dispersal. If an ecosystem is rich in species, it is generally more resilient to environmental change.  The relationship between fruit / seed dispersal and animals has been significantly affected by the creation of roads, motorways, farms, and the development of cities - essentially habitat fragmentation.  Animal dispersal is often associated with fleshy fruits.  Whilst this is particularly true / obvious for many tropical fruits, it is also the case for many plants in temperate regions.  Berries, hips and haws are dispersed by animal means, with birds being particularly important agents. Several pines produce large seeds and attract corvids such as nutcrackers and jays. The birds, sometimes called scatter hoarders, collect seeds and bury them in areas away from the parent trees but in habitats suitable for the next generation of trees  Mammals also play significant roles.  In Africa, elephants are important  seed  dispersers  for  numerous  species; they  have an extra-ordinary sense of smell and will search out ripe, fleshy fruits. Some seeds have been shown to be distributed 60+ kilometres from a parent plant. Not only this, but the journey through the gut of the elephant seemingly increases the chance of germination, and being deposited in the dung reduces the chance of the seed being eaten by beetles.  Some monkeys in South and Central America eat as many as fifty different types of fruit in a day. carrying some off in their stomachs and dropping others to the ground. In Britain, as part of their diet, foxes will eat various wild fruits, like blackberries; squirrels eat nuts; and mice / voles eat grass and other seeds.  Even invertebrates, like ants, disperse seeds. This may be through the activity of harvester ants, which, like squirrels and other ‘gatherers’,  forage the ground of the wood or forest (collectively) gathering large quantities of seeds and  then transport them back to their nests / colonies.  As they transport the seeds, some get dropped or lost on the way.  Others may be ‘cached’ in or near the nest for later consumption but then are ‘forgotten’ or ignored. Some fruits contain seeds covered with a sticky substance as is the case of Mistletoe. When birds feed on the fruits, the seeds often stick to the beaks of birds.  Then, they may wipe the sticky seed off on a branch;  or it may be eaten and pass out in the bird’s droppings. The ‘glue’ (viscin) around the seed helps fasten the seed in place. Even humans carry seeds far away for plants, for example, by taking an apple on a picnic and throwing the core with its seeds into the bushes. Or seeds may transported in the mud sticking to boots and shoes, or indeed on tractors, cars or other machinery. The loss / extinction of animal species from any given habitat will sooner or later effect the plants.  We are only beginning to fully appreciate the interdependence of life.    The loss of any species - plant or animal - will undoubtedly have unintended and unforeseen consequences which can only be to the detriment of all life on earth.  

A thousand years ago, significant areas of the country were devoted to wood pasture, that was grazed by livestock.  As time passed, much of this became royal hunting forest - a mixture of woodland, coppice, open land and farms.  As the woodlands were managed (through traditional techniques such as coppicing and pollarding), many of the trees were able to grow to maturity.  They became veteran trees.  Trees such as beech reach maturity after some 200 years, oaks take 400 years and yew 900+.   Such veteran trees can be seen in areas like the Savernake (south of Marlborough) and Sherwood Forests. Saverrnake has veterans like the Big Belly Oak, and Sherwood has the Major Oak.  Sadly, since the nineteenth century many veteran trees and ancient woodlands have been lost due to the expansion of agriculture, housing development and road & rail creation.  Veterans have also been lost from hedgerows, many of which were grubbed out to enlarge fields to allow for increasing mechanisation. As oaks and beeches age so they change, they expand, trunks hollow, cracks and holes appear, heart rot develops and dead wood appears.  Each tree offers a myriad of micro-habitats.  Bracket fungi feed on the dead heart wood, as do stag beetle larvae.   Mosses and lichens live on the bark, attached to crevices that channel the rain down the trunk, bats, woodpeckers and nuthatches inhabit holes. Other birds (like redstarts) nest in the branches and twigs.  The decaying leaf litter beneath the tree offers sustenance to a variety of beetles, and fungi (e.g. oakbug milkcap).  English oaks are associated with more than two thousand species, and more than two hundred are directly dependent on the trees. The loss of so many veteran trees has resulted in an international project to determine if these trees can be ‘replaced’.  It involves a technique termed veteranisation. Younger trees are damaged in order to start the process of decay and ‘ageing’.  The process may include Creating woodpecker-like holes Creating nest boxes for birds / bats Breaking branches Damaging the bark / trunk - to simulate deer / animal damage Inoculation with fungi It is being trialed at some 20 different sites in Norway, Sweden and England.  The project started in 2012 and will run for some 25 years.  It is hoped that such ‘techniques’ could be used to accelerate the formation of veteran trees status with its associated biodiversity. Thanks to Angus for tree jpgs. For further information : https://naturebftb.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/Introduction-to-Ancients-of-the-Future-Jamie-Robins.pdf https://www.gov.uk/countryside-stewardship-grants/creation-of-dead-wood-habitat-on-trees-te13 https://www.woodlandtrust.org.uk/media/1798/wood-wise-ancient-trees.pdf  (opens PDF)

Wetlands. In the past, many areas of wetlands have been drained and ‘dried out’.  Now it is recognised that this is counter-productive in terms of carbon storage / sequestration and biodiversity, so there are now measures to restore wetlands. The hope has been that restoration of wetlands will do much to restore the variety of plants and animals (and help carbon storage).  However, research by the University of Copenhagen suggests that such projects might be ‘struggling’. The study examined ten wetlands (near the River Odense) that were restored between 2001 and 2011.  The restoration involved the removal of drains and ditches, and allowed streams to meander again instead of flowing in ‘straight channels’.  The aim of the project was primarily to reduce the leaching of nitrogen and phosphorus from adjacent farmlands, and hope to see greater diversity of plants (e.g. marsh orchids, globeflower, tussock-sedge and ragged-robin).   The ‘restored’ wetlands were botanically poor (whether restored in 2001 or 2011), they had only a quarter of the plant species compared to natural wetlands.  This may be due to  the continued input of nutrients (from agriculture), which encourages species that are ‘nutrient hungry’ at the expense of others. the ‘difficulty’ of wetland species to disperse from one area to another. It may be that future restoration programs will need to include planting / seeding of additional wetland species. It has been suggested  that it could take the best part of a hundred years for the restored wetlands to resemble natural wetlands. Redwoods and relatives. Previous posts have talked about the special features of the giant redwoods (their height, age etc).  Over the last 150 years, they have ben subject to the pressures of commercial logging, clear felling and more recently high intensity fires.  Indeed, the fires have been of such an intensity that seed banks in the soil have been destroyed. Now they have been subject to genomic analysis, that is their DNA has been analysed and sequenced.  The first conifer genome to be sequenced was that of Norway Spruce, then that of loblolly pine.  These suggested that conifer genomes are large (3 to 10 times larger than the human genome), with repetitive sequences.  Coast Redwoods are hexaploid, that is, they ave six copies of each chromosome (we are diploid, that is, have only two copies of each chromosome).   The DNA of a coast redwood has  27 billion base pairs of DNA, the giant sequoia has 8 billion; by contrast we have circa 3 billion.   It is hoped that the Redwood Genome project will see the restoration of areas of coast redwood and giant sequoia that have been lost over the years. The genomic analysis will help inform and guide management strategies, ensuring genetic diversity in the newly planted tree seedlings. Such a strategy will (hopefully) enable newly planted areas to survive and thrive — in the Anthropocene. More on chromosomes Just as it has recently been shown that Coast redwoods are polyploids (i.e. have extra sets of chromosomes), so recent research in the Czech Republic has shown that the common nettle [Urtica dioica] has different ecological ‘preferences’ depending on its chromosomal status.  Nettles can be diploid (2n = 26) or tetraploid (2n = 52).  The tetraploid nettles seemingly have a broader ecological tolerance and a wide geographical distribution, whilst the diploid nettles occur in a narrower range of ecological conditions. Details of this research can be accessed here (note link opens a PDF) and Plants for a future has lots of information on nettles.    

We know that forests are important to all life on the planet.  They have often been referred to as the ‘lungs of the earth’, a reference to the fact that they produce vast quantities of oxygen - which is essential for respiration for so many forms of life.  They also take up carbon dioxide and ‘fix’ it into complex organic molecules - from starches, to cellulose and lignin.  Thus, the carbon is locked away for months, years or even millennia.  The equatorial forests of Brazil and Sumatra are species rich, incredibly diverse, but deforestation and the expansion of agriculture are threats to many biodiverse, forested areas across the world. As so many forests and woodlands have been felled, there is now a movement to plant millions and millions of trees (across the world) in an attempt to mitigate climate change and in the UK to increase our percentage tree cover from a pretty low base.  Sadly, twentieth century forestry in the U.K was largely based on monocultures (for timber production). The trees planted were large stands or plantations of conifers - using Scots Pine, Larch and Spruce. These plantations not only lacked biodiversity, but were / are susceptible to wide scale pest infestation and extreme weather events.   Woodlands and forests that have a diverse range of tree species are not only healthier but show greater growth and carbon fixation. They are more resilient.  The diversity of trees ensures the each species accesses slightly different resources from the environment  - from soil minerals, water and light.  Diversity means that trees of the same species are less likely to be clustered together so pest and pathogen outbreaks are less common or less severe.  One area that has undergone an extensive and diverse planting regime is Norbury Park Estate (near Stafford).  Since 2009, over 100 different tree species have been planted, and the woodlands can now produce 1500 tonnes of new wood each year, and harvest 5000 tonnes of carbon dioxide from the air.  Not only can diverse woodlands / forests fix carbon, supply harvestable timber but they also offer areas for rest and relaxation. Whilst it is not possible to plant an 'instant' forest or woodland, it is possible to plant a range of tree and shrub species that will in time grow and mature to form a diverse and species-rich area.  As Charles Darwin said many years ago “more living beings can be supported on the same area the more they diverge in structure, habits, and constitution” [On the Origin of Species by means of Natural Selection, 1859] Managing woodlands for wildlife - see here.   N.B.  Opens a PDF.    

Compared to some of our European neighbours, it seems that our percentage woodland and forest cover is quite low at 13%; as was recently discussed on the BBC "More or less" programme.  Only Denmark and the Netherlands have similar low levels of cover.  Finland, on the other hand, has almost three quarters of its surface area covered with trees. After the end of the last ice age, trees gradually recolonised the exposed landscape so that vast swathes of the U.K. were covered with woodland/forest - the wildwood. It might be thought that our current low figure is due to increased urbanisation, road/motorway construction etc. In fact, the tree cover is remarkably similar to that at the end of the first millennium CE. More trees were ‘lost’ in succeeding centuries with the expansion of farming, and trees were harvested for boat building and house construction.   The Mary Rose was built using oak and elm. It was the first big ship of the Tudor naval fleet.  It has been estimated that over 600 trees were needed for its construction; that is equivalent to about 16 hectares of forest/woodland. Wood was also used to produce charcoal, which was used to smelt metals, particularly iron.  The history of charcoal burners in the New Forest is well documented. Many woodlands / forests were the preserve of the landed gentry and the aristocracy and reserved for deer hunting.  Anyone caught killing deer or boar from such woodlands could suffer terrible punishments but would more likely be fined.. Woodland and forest continued to be depleted so that by the end of the seventeenth century, the percentage cover had fallen to 8%. At the beginning of the twentieth century, the figure stood at a pitiful 5.2%.  The Asquith administration in 1916 established a committee to report on the country’s woodlands and timber supplies.  This lead to the setting up of the Forestry Commission which was not just concerned with established ‘strategic reserves of timber’ but also trying to create viable communities in marginal areas. Through its efforts over the succeeding decades, the U.K’s area of woodland and forest has increased significantly - though the Forestry Commission’s heavy use of coniferous species (particularly in the 60’s and 70’s) has been criticised.  Coniferous woodland / plantations do not support such a wide range of plant and animal life as deciduous woodland.  However, their current emphasis on diversity (and recreational use) favours a much wider range of species, including broadleaved/deciduous trees and the development of a richer ground flora.