In recent decades, extreme climate events such as tropical storms, droughts, floods, wildfires, heat waves, and cold snaps have increased in both frequency and intensity. These events have the potential to reshape human populations and ecosystems across nearly all regions of the world. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), such events are projected to intensify further in the coming decades. Very strong hurricanes are expected to become more common, wildfires to burn hotter and spread farther, and heat waves to last longer. Extreme events pose severe risks not only to human populations but also to biodiversity and the structural integrity of ecosystems. They can reek changes in species in a number of ways. One of the earliest studies of the biological consequences of an extreme climate event was carried out by Hermon Bumpus at Brown University.  [caption id="attachment_42667" align="aligncenter" width="675"] Brown University campus[/caption] In February 1898, an unusually severe and prolonged storm brought snow, sleet, and rain to Providence, Rhode Island. After the storm, Bumpus collected a large number of incapacitated sparrows (Passer domesticus), of which 72 survived and 64 perished. He measured a range of body characteristics in both groups. The birds varied in length from 152 mm to 167 mm, with an average of 159.5 mm. Individuals whose body length was close to this average were more likely to survive, whereas those at the extremes were more likely to die. Very long-bodied birds were particularly vulnerable. In addition to body length, [caption id="attachment_42669" align="alignleft" width="300"] Elementary lessons in zoölogy, by Needham, James G. 1896[/caption] Bumpus measured traits such as weight, femur length, humerus length, sternum length, and skull width. Interestingly, he also noted that males were more likely to survive the storm than females. Bumpus’s work represents one of the earliest investigations of natural selection in the context of an extreme climate event. Since his study, relatively few investigations have directly examined the selective pressures imposed by such events.  However,  certain lizards on the Turks and Caicos Islands have been found to have larger sticky toe pads after experiencing Hurricanes Irma and Maria, when compared to ‘pre-hurricane’ lizards.  The next generation of lizards also had larger toe pads, which suggests a heritable feature and hurricane driven selection. Nevertheless, such research suggests that extreme climate events [such as high winds, extreme temperatures, flooding] can generate 'short lived' but strong episodes of natural selection, and may drive rapid evolutionary change.   [caption id="attachment_43023" align="aligncenter" width="675"] a sparrow[/caption] Further reading : https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00955-8 Sparrow leg anatomy from 'Elementary lessons in zoölogy, a guide in studying animal life and structure in field and laboratory' by Needham, James G, 1898. Accessed from Archive.org  

Plants have existed for hundreds of millions of year - as algae, mosses, liverworts, ferns but flowering plants only appeared about 140 million years ago. The exact timing of their appearance is a matter of some debate (see article) They have been a massive evolutionary success, there are perhaps 300,000 to 400,000 species world wide.  They reproduce using pollen.  This is used to fertilise the ovules and produce viable seeds.  Most plants rely on insects to transfer this pollen to the ovules, indeed over 80% of flowering plants have relied on insects for this service.  To this end, flowering plants (Angiosperms) have evolved a number of inducements to attract insects : colour, scent and nectar. When we think of pollinators, we generally tend to think of bees, bumblebees, hover flies.  But when flowering plants first evolved, fossil evidence suggests that many of these flowers were quite small so it is probably that the first pollinators were also quite small, and hence able to access these small flowers.  The first pollinators were probably small flies, midges or beetles (more than 77,000 beetle species are estimated to visit flowers).  Quite when bees (and their pollen collecting activities) evolved is not known.   A recent analysis of the "family tree" of the families of flowering plants indicates when different plant families evolved and when various forms of pollination emerged.  Insect pollination is / was clearly the most common method of pollination,  and was probably the first means of pollination.  This analysis also indicated that other means of pollination (involving small mammals, birds, bats) have evolved several times, as has wind pollination.  Wind pollination seems to have evolved more often in open habitats and at higher altitudes , whereas animal pollination is associated with closed canopy tropical forests. The pollen of insect pollinated flowers is significantly different to that of wind pollinated species.  Flowers that are insect pollinated tend to produce pollen that is heavy, 'sticky' and protein-rich.   Pollen is an important constituent of the diet of many insects.  Wind pollinated species by contrast produce large quantities of pollen, the grains being light and small.

I met up with George Peterken, the man who has probably done more than any living person to protect Britain's ancient Woodlands.  He continues to study woods in fine detail to find out how they actually work and he has written a new book, "Woodland Development" where he explains how a 70-year study of Lady Park Woodland in the Wye Valley has revealed detail on how a broadleaved woodland develops.  Young trees that are just slightly larger than others at the beginning tend to stay larger: "within the first decade, probably sooner, those which are destined to become big trees will have already established themselves as the larger saplings - it's like the boat race: getting an early lead means you probably win in the long run."   Read more...