At this time of year, certain plants play an important  part in Christmas celebrations.  One is the Christmas Tree itself - which became established in Victorian times after Prince Albert introduced one in the Royal Household.  A Christmas tree is invariably a conifer but any of the following species may be used : Norway Spruce Picea abies Silver Fir Abies alba  Nordmann Fir Abies normanniana Scots Pine Pinus sylvestris and in North America Douglas Fir Pseudotuga menziesii  and Balsam Fir Abies balsamea. There is also the artificial Christmas tree. These originated in Germany in the late 1800s, and were typically made from dyed goose feathers attached to a central pole / wire frame.  Later in the 1930s, the Addis company used the machinery for making their toilet brushes to create ”trees’ .  Animal bristles, dyed green, were used to form the needles of the ‘trees’.  Nowadays, most of the artificial Christmas trees come from China. Apart from the Christmas tree, there is also Holly, Ivy and Mistletoe. All are evergreen plants.  Bringing greenery is an age old tradition associated with the coming of, or ‘rebirth’ of Spring.  The holly tree is either male or female, and also not a conifer. The leaves have spines and a thick, protective and waxy cuticle. Its leaves (as a garland around the door) were thought provide protection for the home, warding off evil spirits.  It was also used in the ancient Celtic Festival of Beltane to welcome in summer. It is certainly the case that in the past, the distribution of holly was far more widespread. The Needwood Forest in Staffordshire was a significant and ancient midlands forest but after the Enclosure Act of 1803, large numbers of its trees were felled.  In his ‘Plant Book’, Professor David Mabberley notes that some 150,000 holly trees were taken from this forest to provide bobbins for the cotton mills of Lancashire.  Bagot’s Wood is said to be the largest existing piece of this ancient woodland). Holly was also an important species in hunting estates and deer parks. Sometimes it was planted around saplings of other more valuable trees to deter browsing by deer. The  leaves of Holly are palatable to livestock, despite their spines.  It is the only evergreen tree (found in deciduous forest or woodland) that does not contain chemicals that are toxic to sheep or cattle. For many centuries, it was common practice to provide holly as fodder for livestock, during the winter months when other foodstuff such as hay or grains were in short supply.  Without the provision of the holly, livestock might have to be slaughtered.  The practice of using holly as fodder was more common in areas like Cumbria, the Welsh Borders and the Pennines*. Again in the past, Holly was also for hedging as it was virtually impenetrable, though the downside of using holly was its relatively slow growth. The berries of holly are attractive food to some birds, especially redwings and fieldfares. Holly and Ivy are often used to make festive wreaths and garlands. Common ivy (Hedera helix) may be found growing in woodlands, hedgerows or on walls. Sometimes it is a climber; sometimes it forms a layer at ground level.  It is a woody, evergreen perennial that is distributed throughout much of the British Isles, and many parts of Europe. It can grow in a variety of soil types, and when mature is resistant to many harsh conditions, being particularly tolerant of shade. Last of the Christmas plants is the mistletoe. Mistletoe is well known for the custom of “kissing underneath the mistletoe”. It is an unusual plant in that it is a hemiparasite that grows on trees such as apple, lime, poplar and hawthorn.  It forms large balls that are suspended  from the branches and and more obvious in the winter months (see featured image), when the host has lost its leaves.  Whilst it can make sugars and other complex organic compounds, it relies on its host plant for water and mineral salts.  It does this by forming ‘clamp-like’ connections (known as haustoria) with the water conduction tissue (xylem tissue) of the host plant.Mistletoe is an important species on woodlands. Some species are directly dependent upon it, or example the mistletoe marble moth and the 'kiss me slow weevil', and the berries provide food for number of different birds.    When mistletoe is removed from woodlands,  the number of woodland birds tends to decline as does biodiversity.  

Many organisms help to disperse seeds in woodlands or forests, from squirrels, birds, bears, foxes, rabbits.  The fruits / seeds may be eaten and pass through the gut of the animal or may be caught in their fur, or stuck to them (like the seeds of mistletoe or cleavers).  However, there is another 'army of helpers'  - ANTS.  Ants may disperse seeds in two distinct ways.  The first way is  through the activity of harvester ants.  Like squirrels and other ‘gatherers’, harvester ants move through the wood or forest gathering seeds and transporting them back to their colonies.  As they transport the seeds, some get dropped or lost on the way.  Others may be ‘cached’ / stored,  in or near the colony for later consumption, but then are ‘forgotten’.  Such seeds may later germinate and establish themselves somewhere away from the parent plant.  This accidental dispersal is sometimes referred to  as  ‘seed predation’. a second method of seed dispersal by ants involves a more intimate association between particular plants and specific ant species.Some plants, when they form the seed, produce an 'extra structure', attached to the seed; an ELAIOSOME or fat / oil body.  This elaiosome lures or attracts ants to the seed.  Wood anemone and cow-wheat (Melampyrum pratense) seeds have an elaiosome. [caption id="" align="aligncenter" width="512"] cow wheat ; thanks to Kristian Peters -- Fabelfroh 09:39, 3 October 2006 (UTC), CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons[/caption] Ants need some fat, and fat-rich food is hard to come by in the woodland setting.  The ant carries off the seed to the colony, where the fat body is eaten (often by the ant larvae).   The seed is then left and can later germinate. This interaction between plant and ant is termed  MYRMECOCHORY. It is a form of mutualism, as there are benefits to this arrangement for both ‘partners’. The seeds of the plant are ‘protected’ from seed predation by birds and rodents.   The seed is dispersed from the parent plant, ants bearing a seed for some 70 metres have been recorded.  The seed is then (often) deposited in a nutrient rich microhabitat. The ant gains a ‘tailor made’ food material rich in fat, an energy rich material.  In some areas, such as Australia, the seed may be protected from fire as it is buried at some depth. Myrmecochory is seen in many species in north eastern America, but also Europe, Australia and Africa. wood ants https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZVGcl4Om-C8&t=40s    

Occasionally, there is a blog about Mistletoe, it tends to be around December and Christmas. It is a plant associated with that time of year.However, mistletoe* is botanically  interesting as it is a hemi-parasite.  It grows on other plants - notably apple, blackthorn, lime, willow and poplar.  It has evergreen, smooth-edged, oval leaves so it can photosynthesise, making sugars and other complex organic compounds.  However, it relies on its host plant for water and mineral salts.  It ‘hijacks’ water and minerals by forming ‘clamp-like’ connections (known as haustoria) with the xylem (water conducting tissue) of the host. Mistletoe produces its characteristic white berries (known as drupes) during the winter months. Within the flesh of the  berries are the seeds.  The berries are often taken by birds and as the tissue around the seeds is sticky, the bird will often try to scrape off a seed sticking to its beak by ‘wiping’ the beak against the bark of a tree. The stickiness of this material probably helps stick the seed to a host.  The sticky material is fibrous and is known as viscin (the scientific name for mistletoe is Viscum album).  [caption id="attachment_38403" align="aligncenter" width="600"] slightly dehydrated Christmas mistletoe berries[/caption] Now viscin is being investigated in depth for its adhesive properties.  Each berry can produce some two metres of the sticky viscin fibres, and when wet these can be processed to form thin films.  It may be that it can be used as a wound sealant or skin covering.  Seemingly viscin can stick to almost anything, not only natural materials from wood, skin and feathers but also plastic, glass and metal alloys.   [caption id="attachment_38404" align="aligncenter" width="560"] 'Balls' of mistletoe[/caption] Research into viscin has been initiated at McGill University and the Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces.  It may be that it will offer a new type of adhesive that is biodegradable and biorenewable. Mistletoe is a member of the Santalaceae, which includes the sandalwoods,

Sadly, the world is losing species, both plant and animal, at a significant rate.  Indeed, some claim that we are now experiencing the sixth mass extinction.  In contrast to previous extinctions (the Permian extinction is thought to be due to an asteroid impact), the present loss of species is largely associated with a mix of direct and indirect human activities. These include :- destruction and fragmentation of habitats,  Exploitation fishing stocks and hunting (think dodo),  chemical pollution,  invasive / introduced species, and  human-caused global warming The loss of animal species has knock-on effects in terms of food chains and biodiversity. Plants are also affected as many rely on animals for the dispersal of their fruits and seeds.  In times of global warming, it is essential that plants can reach new areas that are suitable for their growth.  If not, they are stuck in areas where they may not be able to survive in the changed / changing conditions.  This could mean that plant species are lost, together with the ‘ecosystem services’ that they provide (be it food, timber, carbon storage, flood mitigation etc).  Seed dispersal is also important in terms of recovery from ecological disasters, like wildfires.  Natural forest regrowth usually happens through seed dispersal. If an ecosystem is rich in species, it is generally more resilient to environmental change.  The relationship between fruit / seed dispersal and animals has been significantly affected by the creation of roads, motorways, farms, and the development of cities - essentially habitat fragmentation.  Animal dispersal is often associated with fleshy fruits.  Whilst this is particularly true / obvious for many tropical fruits, it is also the case for many plants in temperate regions.  Berries, hips and haws are dispersed by animal means, with birds being particularly important agents. Several pines produce large seeds and attract corvids such as nutcrackers and jays. The birds, sometimes called scatter hoarders, collect seeds and bury them in areas away from the parent trees but in habitats suitable for the next generation of trees  Mammals also play significant roles.  In Africa, elephants are important  seed  dispersers  for  numerous  species; they  have an extra-ordinary sense of smell and will search out ripe, fleshy fruits. Some seeds have been shown to be distributed 60+ kilometres from a parent plant. Not only this, but the journey through the gut of the elephant seemingly increases the chance of germination, and being deposited in the dung reduces the chance of the seed being eaten by beetles.  Some monkeys in South and Central America eat as many as fifty different types of fruit in a day. carrying some off in their stomachs and dropping others to the ground. In Britain, as part of their diet, foxes will eat various wild fruits, like blackberries; squirrels eat nuts; and mice / voles eat grass and other seeds.  Even invertebrates, like ants, disperse seeds. This may be through the activity of harvester ants, which, like squirrels and other ‘gatherers’,  forage the ground of the wood or forest (collectively) gathering large quantities of seeds and  then transport them back to their nests / colonies.  As they transport the seeds, some get dropped or lost on the way.  Others may be ‘cached’ in or near the nest for later consumption but then are ‘forgotten’ or ignored. Some fruits contain seeds covered with a sticky substance as is the case of Mistletoe. When birds feed on the fruits, the seeds often stick to the beaks of birds.  Then, they may wipe the sticky seed off on a branch;  or it may be eaten and pass out in the bird’s droppings. The ‘glue’ (viscin) around the seed helps fasten the seed in place. Even humans carry seeds far away for plants, for example, by taking an apple on a picnic and throwing the core with its seeds into the bushes. Or seeds may transported in the mud sticking to boots and shoes, or indeed on tractors, cars or other machinery. The loss / extinction of animal species from any given habitat will sooner or later effect the plants.  We are only beginning to fully appreciate the interdependence of life.    The loss of any species - plant or animal - will undoubtedly have unintended and unforeseen consequences which can only be to the detriment of all life on earth.  

Christmas is a good time to go for a woodland walk .... and for presents. For children, there's nothing better as a motivator than a quiz. So we are offering to send entrants a prize of a woodlands notebook and tree poster which we will post to you as soon as we get your entry if it's valid - maximum 40 prizes. Read more...

When you look around this week, you might see suspended from the ceiling or a light fitment - a rather sad and shrivelled piece of mistletoe.  Mistletoe is well known for its connection to Christmas, in particular for the custom of “kissing underneath the mistletoe”.  The mistletoe has separate male and female plants; it is DIOECIOUS.  It follows that the male plants will not produce berries and they have no commercial value - as they do not yield berry-laden sprigs for Christmas decorations.  This use of mistletoe may be rooted in festive legends of 'fertility and life giving powers'. Read more...

Three evergreen plants come to mind at this time of year - Holly, Ivy and Mistletoe.   Holly and Ivy are 'immortalised' in "The Holly and the Ivy" , a traditional  Christmas carol. Both holly and ivy have been part of church decoration  since the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries (as recorded in churchwardens’ accounts).   Mistletoe, (also known as “the golden bough” or Viscum album), is well known for its connection to Christmas, in particular for the custom of “kissing underneath the mistletoe”.   Mistletoe associations go way back and there are many customs and myths surrounding the plant. For example, Druids greatly revered it, believing that it held the soul of the host tree. It would be cut from sacred oak trees with a golden sickle.   It was used in folk / herbal medicine to treat a variety of ailments.  Now, like many plants, mistletoe is being investigated for its phytochemicals and possible medical uses. Read more...

In various older texts on botany and gardening, it is said that ' … in Germany, Holly abounds in many forests… In France, it is abundant, more particularly in Brittany.  The tree appears to attain a larger size in England than in other parts of Europe"  Certainly, in the past there were large areas where Holly was abundant. For example, Needwood Forest in Staffordshire. This was a significant and ancient Midlands forest. However, the Enclosure Act of 1803 allowed for the felling of large numbers of trees; this took some time to complete.  In his ‘Plant Book’, Professor David Mabberley notes that some 150,000 holly trees were taken from Needwood about this time, to provide bobbins for the cotton mills of Lancashire.  (Bagot’s Wood is said to be the largest existing piece of this ancient wood). Read more...