Trees are remarkably resilient.  In various forms they have been arounds for millions of years.  They have survived asteroid impact (66 million years ago), and a series of successive ice ages.  However, in more recent times they have faced a new challenge, the relentless march of humankind. Early societies felled trees for timber for dwellings, boats*, wood for fire, making tools, as part of ‘flash and burn’ agriculture to create a ‘swidden’ to grow food.  The material felled to create a swidden was allowed to dry and then burnt, the ash released mineral nutrients into the soil for the crops.  As more complex civilisations / societies evolved, there were attempts to restore degraded forests / bare land, and  to protect forests.  The Zhou (Chou) dynasty established a ‘forestry service’ over two thousand years ago, and in India the emperor Ashoka (268 -232 BCE) ordered wide scale reforestation.  Much later in the Middles Ages there were efforts to restore degraded areas, for example, around Nuremberg in the C12th.  Most of these early efforts were concerned with increasing timber production or the mitigation of natural disasters.  In the last two centuries, significant areas of natural forest and woodland have been lost, increasing the risk of soil erosion, flooding and disease (as animals are displaced). In the last century, the percentage cover by forest / woodland in some countries (for example, the UK) was low so vast areas were planted with a single species. Fast growing species (conifers such as pines, spruce and larch) were often grown on what was regarded as marginal land, creating plantations.   In some parts of the Mediterranean, Eucalyptus was planted.  These were species that could cope with the challenging nature of the soil and / or the  topography.   Many of the European initiatives met with some success in terms of timber production and / or the stabilisation of degraded areas (for example, reducing erosion).  Such schemes also created jobs, contributing to the local economy.  But when grassland or heathland were used to create single species plantations, this was often accompanied by a loss in biodiversity. In places, the introduction of non-native species has been challenging as they have become invasive, for example, black cherry. The success of any scheme is dependent on Sound planting techniques and aftercare Selection of the right species for the area The co-operation / involvement of local peoples. Mass planting of a single species can also contribute to the rapid spread of disease / pests (e.g.bark beetles, pine procesionary moth).  Vast swathes of coniferous forest were affected by acid rain (associated with sulphur dioxide from the burning of fossil fuels) in the last century.  This was termed Waldsterben [Wald=forest + sterben=to die].   Problems such as these, coupled with increasing environmental awareness contributed to a rethink of the aims and objectives of forest management / renewal / restoration. However, there were examples where ecological recovery was good, for example, some spruce and black pine ‘monocultures’ were diversified through the planting of a understorey of broadleaved trees, as in Slovenia. In recent times, timber production, control of erosion and reduction of disaster risk remain relevant still, but the importance of biodiversity, resilience and ecosystem services are now uppermost.  There is a move from ‘quantity to quality’ of forest and woodland.  In many countries, a growing interest in recreation and tourism (recognising the importance of green space for mental and physical well being), coupled with growing environmental concerns and recognition of climate change has emerged.   Forest and woodlands across the world, from the boreal regions to the Equator are under threat.  Many have been lost or badly degraded, and are in desperate need of restoration.  Forests are no longer regarded as sources of timber, but are important providers of ecosystem services, such as the mitigation of flooding. So, in more recent times they have been efforts to restore and repair forests and woodlands.  Homogenous and dense plantations / forests in boreal regions had clearings created to allow light demanding species to establish.  Limitations have been placed on clear cutting, and the use of fencing, tree protectors have [caption id="attachment_41889" align="alignleft" width="300"] squirrel[/caption] helped to reduce browsing pressure (by deer / squirrels etc).  One means of promoting biodiversity is ensuring that the woodland / forests offer deadwood.  This provides a ‘home’ to species as varied as woodpeckers to saproxylic beetles. These beetles help break down wood so that it can be further broken down by fungi and bacteria, returning nutrients to the soil. Tree girdling was a technique used in Finland to create deadwood, it severs the conducting tissue (phloem) so that the supply of sugars is interrupted.  Thought is now given to the selection and introduction of tree species that are adapted and resilient to anticipated climate change impacts.   Though countries have adopted a variety of techniques in recent times, the extent of forest and woodland restoration has been largely limited by the funding available.  Restoration does not come cheap, funding over significant period of time is needed, and time itself for the effects of  the measures to become apparent. For detailed information on forest restoration see - https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40725-024-00235-3 Intereesting facts : Henry V111’s flag ship, the Mary Rose , was built using oak and elm. It was the first big ship of the Tudor naval fleet and it is estimated that over 600 trees were needed for its construction,. That is equivalent to about 16 hectares of forest / woodland.  And Cver 370 species are supported in the territories of the Karen swidden farmers in northern Thailand.  

For biodiversity to flourish, a wide variety of microhabitats is needed.  With many micro-habitats, more species are able to thrive. It may seem counter-intuitive but deadwood offers opportunities for a diverse range of species. Within a woodland, there are various types of deadwood, providing shelter and food for many organisms.  Perhaps one of the most obvious examples of deadwood is standing but dead trees.  If the dead tree was a veteran, then it will provide a variety of micro-habitats.  Holes and crevices may be used by bats and birds, the decaying wood will be colonised by bacteria and fungi, bracket fungi may erupt - whilst the bark will continue to offer a substrate for mosses and lichens.  As the wood decays, the material becomes a home for saproxylic beetles. Stag beetle larvae feed on decaying wood underground,  whilst the adults rely on fat reserves built up during their larval stage. Adults can ‘drink' oozing sap  and the juice of soft, rotting fruit. In the UK, some 650 beetle species are associated with deadwood [visit Dr Ross Piper’s website for full details of these insects].  As with many insects, many saproxylic beetles are threatened with extinction - due to the decline in the number of veteran / ancient trees.  Saproxylic beetles, apart from being important in the recycling of materials, are also food for birds and mammals. A previous blog has extolled the virtue of dead hedges.  Dead hedges are simply piles of branches and twigs arranged to create a barrier / hedge. They represent  a way of disposing of material that arises from thinning or clearing operations in woodlands. This ‘waste material’ of saplings and side branches are sometimes referred to as “arisings" by tree surgeons, or "lop and top” by foresters. Using this material in this way is good for wildlife, particularly for small mammals and birds - as it gives them somewhere to shelter from the wind and rain, and protection from predators. It's also good for insects.  As the material rots and decomposes, it adds humus / nutrients to the underlying soil. Larger pieces of wood from the felling of trees can be arranged to form a stack or pile, by simply laying branches and logs on top of one another  Such a stack wil rot and decay over time, but will provide a home to a variety of wildlife. So, deadwood in its various forms, is an important part of woodland ecosystems. It has a role in delivering biodiversity, but it also provides ‘ecosystem services’, such as soil formation and nutrient cycling. Deadwood contributes to the detrital food chain, which is driven by fungi, bacteria and detritivores.   Below : All that remains of a historic tree - the Wilberforce Oak. It was here at Holwood House (Keston , near Hayes, Bromley) in 1788 that William Wilberforce resolved to address the task of abolishing the slave trade. It took some twenty years for his vision to be realised. [Thanks to Ruth for images of the Wilberforce Oak] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holwood_House

It may be that a dead hedge is just that, your once carefully manicured box hedge which has now been ravished by the box moth.  However, in terms of managing your woodland, a dead hedge may have a different meaning. Here, a dead hedge may be a barrier to an area of new planting, it may be a way to ‘persuade’ people to keep to a footpath, or keep away from a pond / stream.   The dead hedge will be made from the bits and pieces that have be culled in clearing and thinning operations within the wood, material that foresters sometimes refer to as ‘lop and top’ and tree surgeons call ‘arisings. It can also include material cut from brambles and climbers such as ivy, honeysuckle and Old Man’s Beard (Clematis). Using natural materials to create barriers (and indeed) a habitat in a woodland is a way of using ‘waste’ in an ecologically sound way.  It saves having to remove trimmings from the site and offers opportunities to ‘top up’ the hedge if desired.  Obviously diseased materials should not be used.   Creating a dead hedge from clippings and trimmings is a way of using natural materials, rather than plastic & other materials that do not readily decompose.  A dead hedge will be an effective barrier for a period of time but it will break down sooner or later as bacteria and fungi break down the woody remains (lignin and cellulose).  The disappearance of the hedge will take time as the branches twigs etc are largely off the ground, so relatively dry and decomposition is facilitated by warmth and wetness. After its initial ‘construction’, the hedge will become part of the woodland, it will be colonised by some plants and it will offer shelter, nesting sites for birds and small mammals, and a ‘home’ to many different invertebrates, such as woodlice, beetles, even certain species of bumblebees.  As the hedge deteriorates, that is, decomposes, so the soil will gain in humus and fertility as the nutrients from the decaying wood etc are released through the detrital food chains.   Another way of using / recycling bits from pruning, clearing etc is by Hugelkultur.   Hugel beds are basically raised beds with a difference - they are filled with rotting wood and other biomass.  They are packed with organic material, nutrients and air pockets. Such beds can be an effective way of creating a productive area for growing fruits and vegetables in your woodland.  There is a woodlands blog about hugelkultur here. Large chunks of wood e.g. sawn up tree trunks can be stacked up in small piles and will over time make an excellent home for many invertebrates but especially xylophagous (wood eating) insects, for example,  saproxylic beetles.  These are beetles that live / eat in dead wood.  In the UK, some 600+ beetle species (from 53 different) families are associated with deadwood. Some feed on the deadwood itself (often with the aid of symbiotic bacteria in their gut), others feed on the fungi that are gradually ‘dissolving’ the wood.  Ants and wasps sometimes make their nests in dead wood.   Using wood to increase the organic content of the soil is good in terms of  carbon sequestration,  improving soil fertility,  water conservation and  productivity.  

Woodlands contribute substantially to the character of the countryside, clothing the sides of valleys and hillsides, forming copses and wider swathes of wood.  The amount of woodland varies from county to county, in some areas broadleaved woodland dominates whereas others have a preponderance of coniferous plantation.  The national average for woodland cover is about 8.3%, with Surrey, Sussex and Hampshire being some of the most ‘wooded’ counties.  The oak is perhaps one of our largest native, broad-leaved trees.  There are two native species of oak; the sessile oak (Quercus petraea) and the pedunculate oak (Quercus robur). Oaks are (generally) long-lived trees that grow quite slowly, compared to other broadleaved species. Both the pedunculate and sessile oak (and their hybrids) can grow to be very large trees.   Old trees can have a circumference of 10+ metres. Read more...