Last week's woodlands’ blog talked about the fall in insect numbers across the UK.  This is not just a UK problem, it is far more widespread.  Insects,  bees and bumblebees as pollinators aside,  are important in ecosystems;  there are armies of other insects that are providing ‘services’ for us. When a tree dies in a woodland, bacteria and fungi are important agents in the decay of the tree and the recycling of elements, but they are assisted by beetles. If the dead tree was a veteran, during its lifetime it will have provided  a variety of micro-habitats.  Holes and crevices would have been used by bats,  birds,  insects etc.  Now, the the decaying wood will be support different organisms, from microbes to larger fungi, such as bracket fungi that can erupt from surface of the dead tree.   As the wood decays,  the material may become a ‘home’ for saproxylic beetles. For example, Stag beetle larvae feed on decaying wood (building up fat reserves, which the adults later rely on. it adds humus and fertility to the soil as its nutrients are released. Though bees and bumblebees (members of the order Hymenoptera) are important as pollinators (of many fruit and crop plants, so are the hoverflies key to  the pollination of many wild flowers.  Hoverflies belong to a different group of insects - the Diptera. There are several thousand hoverfly species spread across the world. They are found on every continent with the exception of Antarctica.  Work by Dr. Wotton and his team at Exeter University suggests they are situations where hoverflies may be more effective pollinators than bees and bumblebees, and the role of hoverflies in crop pollination may have been under-estimated.  Hoverflies can carry pollen over considerable distances, and may  visit isolated plants.  The common drone fly (Eristalis tenax) has been known to travel some 100km and carry the pollen of eight plant species.  Hoverflies (or Syrphidae) are also known to migrate over considerable distances.  The female marmalade hoverfly can migrate from Scandinavia to Spain and North Africa, migrating in the autumn to lay their eggs.  In the following Spring, succeeding generations migrate north again.  Some American hoverflies are known to migrate from Canada to the southern states. Insects are not just important in terms of facilitating decay or aiding pollination, some are involved in seed dispersal.  Scientists at Kobe University studied the dispersal of seeds from the fruit of the silver dragon plant.  Using  time lapse photography techniques, they watched to see which animals feed on the plant’s fruit at night. Whilst crickets (order : Orthoptera) ate much of the fruit, earwigs (order : Dermaptera) and woodlice (not insects, but terrestrial crustaceans) also consumed significant amounts of the tiny seeds of the fruit.  Further work demonstrated that many of the seeds survived the passage through the gut of these animals.  So apart from being seed predators, small invertebrates may also help their dispersal, depositing them away from the parent plant. Woodlice are interesting land based crustaceans that generally feed on dead and decaying plant material, helping in the recycling of nutrients. Further examples of the importance of insects in nature can be seen in fig production.  The fig wasp 'gives its life' in the process of pollinating the fig, in return the fig provides a safe ‘nursery’ for the young on the wasp, seed the woodland blog on the fig.  There are many types of fig and each has its own wasp, to ensure successful pollination.  Full details of the life cycle of fig wasps can be followed here.  The association between the wasps and figs is an example of mutualism. This co-dependence probably had its origin some seventy million years ago, and the wasps and figs have co-evolved since then. .

Many organisms help to disperse seeds in woodlands or forests, from squirrels, birds, bears, foxes, rabbits.  The fruits / seeds may be eaten and pass through the gut of the animal or may be caught in their fur, or stuck to them (like the seeds of mistletoe or cleavers).  However, there is another 'army of helpers'  - ANTS.  Ants may disperse seeds in two distinct ways.  The first way is  through the activity of harvester ants.  Like squirrels and other ‘gatherers’, harvester ants move through the wood or forest gathering seeds and transporting them back to their colonies.  As they transport the seeds, some get dropped or lost on the way.  Others may be ‘cached’ / stored,  in or near the colony for later consumption, but then are ‘forgotten’.  Such seeds may later germinate and establish themselves somewhere away from the parent plant.  This accidental dispersal is sometimes referred to  as  ‘seed predation’. a second method of seed dispersal by ants involves a more intimate association between particular plants and specific ant species.Some plants, when they form the seed, produce an 'extra structure', attached to the seed; an ELAIOSOME or fat / oil body.  This elaiosome lures or attracts ants to the seed.  Wood anemone and cow-wheat (Melampyrum pratense) seeds have an elaiosome. [caption id="" align="aligncenter" width="512"] cow wheat ; thanks to Kristian Peters -- Fabelfroh 09:39, 3 October 2006 (UTC), CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons[/caption] Ants need some fat, and fat-rich food is hard to come by in the woodland setting.  The ant carries off the seed to the colony, where the fat body is eaten (often by the ant larvae).   The seed is then left and can later germinate. This interaction between plant and ant is termed  MYRMECOCHORY. It is a form of mutualism, as there are benefits to this arrangement for both ‘partners’. The seeds of the plant are ‘protected’ from seed predation by birds and rodents.   The seed is dispersed from the parent plant, ants bearing a seed for some 70 metres have been recorded.  The seed is then (often) deposited in a nutrient rich microhabitat. The ant gains a ‘tailor made’ food material rich in fat, an energy rich material.  In some areas, such as Australia, the seed may be protected from fire as it is buried at some depth. Myrmecochory is seen in many species in north eastern America, but also Europe, Australia and Africa. wood ants https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZVGcl4Om-C8&t=40s    

Some seeds when they are dispersed come with a small layer or ‘wing’, made of a complex carbohydrate (mixed with some protein).  When wetted, this material swells to form a sticky, gooey mess - this is mucilage.   For a seed to be dispersed with a sticky mass of goo may seem strange, but biology is rarely wasteful or without purpose. One such mucilaginous seed is “CHIA”.  Chia seeds are classified as a ‘novel food’ in Europe [since 1997], though they have formed part of the diet for people in parts of the Central Americas for centuries.  The seeds are from the fruits of Salvia hispanica - an annual herb that belongs to the Mint Family (Lamiaceae).  The seeds are small (about 1 mm) and roughly oval, they are rich in a number of nutrients - such as omega-3-fatty acids, and minerals like calcium and magnesium.   Read more...

In general, as plants are fixed in place, they have a bit of a problem when it comes to reproduction. That is, exchanging genetic material with one another and then ensuring that their offspring can establish themselves away from the parents so that they are not in direct competition.   Some plants have solved this by using the wind to move pollen and/or seeds (anemochory), some use water (hydrochory) and many others have ‘entered into associations’ with animals.    The list of animals providing ‘assistance’ is quite varied.  In the case of pollen, transfer is achieved by beetles, bees, bumblebees, hoverflies, hummingbirds, fruit bats, moths etc.  The dispersal of seeds by animals is known as zoochory.   Read more...