Large trees are important in terms of carbon storage - with large quantities of above ground biomass, lots of carbon is locked away for years. Trees like Sequoiadendron giganteum, the giant redwoods, are truly large trees;. They are, by volume, amongst the largest trees in the world and incredibly long lived.  Some are thought to be over 3000 years old. Seeds of Sequoiadendron giganteum only arrived in the UK in the 1850’s, brought in by Patrick Matthew and William Lobb.  Lobb was employed by the Veitch Nurseries, based in Exeter.  He travelled extensively in both North and South America (including Argentina and Chile), and brought back not only seeds of the giant redwood but also some 3000 seeds of the monkey puzzle tree (Araucaria araucana).  He made a second trip to South America and brought back many different species of flower, including the chilean bellflower, the flame nasturtium, species of myrtle, and Escallonia macrantha. Exotic trees and shrubs were much prized by wealthy Victorians, and redwoods were planted in the estates and at the entrances of many grand country properties.  They also make appearances in many public parks and gardens, see for example the redwoods at the Lower Pond at Whinfell Quarry Garden in Sheffield. Forestry England estimates that there are half a million Sequoias (giganteum & sempervirens) in the country, and nearly 5000 giganteum trees are recorded by location by redwoodworld.co.uk, the woodland trust ancient tree index and the Forestry Commission.   Though it is only some 170 years since their introduction to the UK, some of these trees are amongst the largest trees in the country. This despite the fact that the climate here is not the same as that on the West Coast of America, their 'natural home'.  Due to their growth rate and carbon sequestration potential, there has been some discussion as to whether they might be included in commercial planting initiatives as they seem resilient to changes in climate, rainfall, soil moisture etc.  Disease resistance in another consideration.  The growth and biomass of some 97 Sequoias at three different sites (Lakehurst, Havering and Benmore) has recently been investigated (using laser scanning)*.  The growth of the trees at Havering was less than that at the other sites, possibly due to lower rainfall (and increased competition) in the East.  However, the growth rates of the trees studied were in the region of 150kg above ground biomass per year (this equates to 81kg of carbon per year).   Such growth is broadly similar to that of their American counterparts of a similar age.  It would seem that Sequoias might be a good choice for planting in terms of carbon uptake.   *Full details of this work here : https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.230603    

In recent years, there have been a number of initiatives to plant millions of trees, both here in the UK and in many other countries.  For example, http://www.stumpupfortrees.org/bryn-arw-common-pilot-plant/ https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/press-release/national-trusts-plans-for-20-million-right-trees-in-right-places-take-root https://queensgreencanopy.org https://onelifeonetree.com https://earthwatch.org.uk/get-involved/tiny-forest?gclid=EAIaIQobChMIiqyVxOvA9w https://earthwatch.org.uk/get-involved/tiny-forest The trees are not being planted to increase timber production. They are to help offset global warming as trees take up carbon dioxide through photosynthesis, so they remove this greenhouse gas from the atmosphere thus helping to offset global warming. However, planting just ‘any old tree’ is not going to solve anything, so scientists from Kew Gardens (RBG Kew) and Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) have set out ten ‘golden rules’ for reforestation. The "Kew" guidelines have been summarised as below : Protect existing forests first Put local people at the heart of tree-planting projects Maximise biodiversity recovery to meet multiple goals Select the right area for reforestation Use natural forest regrowth wherever possible Select the right tree species that can maximise biodiversity Make sure the trees are resilient to adapt to a changing climate Plan ahead Learn by doing Make it pay However, fast as trees are being planted in many places, there have been substantial losses of forests and woodlands in recent times.  The blog has reported on the extensive fires in Sweden, and the Mediterranean.  The recent fires in boreal regions have been extensive and worrying - they have affected Canada, Russia and Alaska.  In the last year, Russia lost some 6.5 million hectares of tree cover.  Boreal forests are often portrayed as vast tracts of ancient, untouched wilderness. Whilst it is true that the boreal region is in itself ancient, the boreal forests are generally composed of relatively young trees trees (as compared to the oaks etc. found in temperate forests and woodlands). Historically speaking, boreal forests have renewed themselves through natural regeneration, after fires.  But now with climate change and rising temperatures, conditions are drier and the fires are more frequent and more intense.  There is also a problem of  damage by insects. The loss of forests in tropical and sub-tropical regions has been a cause for concern for many years, not only because of their importance in generating oxygen and removing carbon dioxide but also as they represent areas of great biodiversity.  Sadly, the loss of such forested areas continues, despite the commitments made at COP26  (where some 141 countries committed to "halt and reverse forest loss by 2030.").   [caption id="attachment_38123" align="aligncenter" width="700"] clear felling in progress[/caption] Forest / tree clearance occurs as a result of clearance for activities such as cattle ranching or the production of palm oil.  However, as a result of the events in Ukraine / Russia the availability / prices of certain oils is now high.  This is also true for palm oil so the ‘temptation’ to convert forested areas into palm oil plantations is significant.   Whilst there is clear evidence that various countries and governments are involved in the creation of woodlands & forests through tree planting initiatives, and working to reduce the loss of primary forests to agriculture or timber extraction, there is concern that nature itself is beginning to work against us. Changing weather patterns, increasing temperatures and extreme climate events are already affecting many forested ecosystems.  

So, you’ve decided to plant some trees and are wondering what tools you’ll need for the job.  Whether you’re planting a select group of ornamental species, a bountiful orchard of fruit and nut trees or a new broadleaved woodland, there is one key aide which will take you a long way – the humble tree planting spade.  This is a short guide to what you might find on the market and the differences between various spades. Spade or Spear? Most tree planting tools will fall into one of two categories: Spades - those shaped like a traditional spade with a curved head and a flat cutting edge at the bottom.  They will look similar to a normal garden spade but much smaller.   Spears – those with a flat face and a point at the end, designed to create a slot in the ground when pressure is applied to the tread by foot. Spades can be used to dig holes for planting and move soil around, making them more versatile tools, whilst spears are excellent for planting cell-grown* or bare root* stock, but are somewhat limited to this sole function.  If planting larger trees with established root systems (root-ball* trees), then a spade is definitely the tool for you, as the slot created by a spear would not be sufficient to house the root system without causing crushing. In contrast, for those looking for an efficient method to plant lots of small trees quickly, for example when establishing new woodland for carbon offsetting purposes, then a spear should definitely be considered.  Comfort is key Like many things, it often comes down to personal preference and what you feel most comfortable with.  There is no right or wrong tool to use, as long as the tree is planted in a way that does not damage it (for example by burying the root collar) then you’re on the right track.  Planting trees is a wonderful thing to do and as much as possible, you should work with tools that make the process a pleasure, which hopefully means you’ll spend more time doing it! Other factors to consider An often-overlooked detail is the length of the shaft and handle, which for those who are slightly taller or have the odd back pain, can make a big difference!  A nice long handle will take the strain off those sensitive back muscles, as well as offering a bit more leverage which can be of assistance when planting in heavier soil types.  The materials and quality of construction is also important; try wherever budget allows to buy once and buy well!  Some cheaper tools made from inferior parts may not stand the test of time, or worse still let you down when you’re out in the field with a bag full of whips.  A solid wooden handle (or better still stainless steel) with a galvanised steel head is a good option, ideally with a double-riveted socket which will provide greater strength.  Where to buy and how much? Tree planting spades are available to buy at most garden centres and agricultural supply stores, such as Mole Valley.  They are also widely available to buy online from specialist tool suppliers.  Whilst you could pick one up from as little as £20, and pay up to £100 for the very best, you will be able to buy an excellent spade for around £30-£35. Bulldog Tools are a reliable supplier and would be a good option to consider. Do what works for you! Planting trees is good fun and of benefit to the planter, the wider community and the environment.  A communal activity and a great form of exercise, the more trees we can all plant, the better!  This means that you should use a planting spade (or spear) which is comfortable to use and gets the job done.  If possible, try out a couple of different designs and manufacturers (borrow from a friend or neighbour where possible) before making the decision, but always remember they are in essence doing the same thing – making a home for a tree where it will live for many years to come. *Tree types Bare root trees – Produced by sowing seeds into outdoor beds.  During development, seedlings are undercut to encourage a healthy root system.  When ready, the trees are lifted and shaken by a machine to remove the soil, revealing the ‘bare’ roots of the tree.  They can only be lifted and planted during the winter months when they are in a state of dormancy. A cost-effective option. Cell grown stock – These trees are developed in a compost ‘cell’ or ‘plug’ and can be seen as an intermediate option between bare root and pot grown.  When removed from the cell, the fibrous root system is contained with the compost which remains on the roots.  More expensive than bare root but generally has a higher success rate and can be planted all year round. Root ball or pot grown – These trees are the most developed and largest of the three options and are delivered with a significant ball of soil surrounding an advanced root system.  The root ball will be encased in a biodegradable material.  Great for those who want more established trees from the offset, although there is a price to be paid for this benefit.

Certain upland areas of the UK , such as Dartmoor, have experienced long term grazing.  This has lead to soil compaction, which in turn means that water run-off is greater. Instead of percolating into the soil, rain water runs over the surface and into rivers. This can lead to flooding during extreme weather events.   Dartmoor (National Park) is a large upland area, which historically was dominated by oak woodland.  Oak woodland now covers a very small area.   The region is now dominated by blanket bog, heathland and acid grassland.  The number of grazing animals (sheep, cattle and ponies - deer) increased significantly between the 1950s and 2000, resulting in soil compaction. Researchers at the University of Plymouth have investigated areas of upland pasture on Dartmoor, and the potential for the establishment of native oak saplings. Working with test sites, they were able to show that significant improvements in soil properties could be observed with 15 years of sapling establishment.   The most effective location (in terms of flood prevention) for sapling / tree planting was on steep hillside on the edge of upland areas.   Their initial work on the planting of woodland has since been expanded to determine the factors that affect the establishment of the tree (oak) saplings.  Their most recent paper notes that the presence of livestock meant that fewer oak saplings survived and those that did were smaller.  However, the effects of cattle and ponies was not always negative in that their trampling could reduce the growth of bracken - allowing more light to reach young tree saplings. [caption id="attachment_34391" align="aligncenter" width="650"] A southern upload moorland - Exmoor[/caption] The research team formulated a number of recommendations relating to the creation / establishment of woodlands in such upland pastures. Livestock should be excluded in areas where there are seedlings and young saplings (1 - 3 years). This exclusion should last for some 12 years. Larger oak (4 - 7 yrs) saplings can be planted into areas of dense vegetation, as this protects the saplings from livestock. Livestock could be allowed to graze in the vicinity of mature oak trees as this would reduce dense, competitive vegetation, allowing seedlings to grow / develop.  Strategic planting and management should be considered  / encouraged for upland slopes where drainage is poor - to allow for soil recovery and development of ecosystem services (flood mitigation). Whilst natural tree colonisation is a low-cost and environmentally sensitive mechanism to promote woodland expansion (working towards government targets on climate mitigation, carbon sequestration etc.), it is likely that the expansion of oak woodland into upland pasture systems will require strategic planting and informed livestock management. [caption id="attachment_37920" align="aligncenter" width="650"] Exmoor Ponies.[/caption] Full details of their paper can be found here : https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/2688-8319.12126  (Thanks to Art for images of exmoor and ponies).

The Flow Country is a large area of peatland and wetland in the north of Scotland (Caithness and Sutherland). It is one of the largest expanses of blanket bog in Europe. It is characterised by deep layers of peat and bog pools.   Wetlands, like this,  are important  as They offer a significant wildlife habitat and They act as mitigating agents in terms of climate change (locking up large amounts of carbon). However, some four decades ago, parts of the Flow Country were planted with conifers,  there were financial incentives to  this planting; namely : grants were available towards the costs of planting other costs were tax deductible so investors spent only 20p for every £1 of capital invested prospectively, income from timber was to be virtually untaxed. This ‘forestation’ of wetlands is now generally regarded as a mistake, not only damaging a unique environment but leading to increased carbon emissions.  Now it seems possible that similar mistakes may be made again.    Read more...

Much of England experienced a series of ‘tropical nights’ last summer, when night time temperatures were 20oC or above.  These tropical nights were associated with the heat wave that affected most of south east England.  Central London experienced its longest stretch of extreme daytime temperatures since the 1960’s -  temperatures of 30+oC were recorded on six consecutive days.  A number of experts have said that such heatwaves and associated tropical nights are likely to become more common as a consequence of climate change.   We were not alone in experiencing high temperatures by day and night, much of western Europe  sweltered in the heat this August. The problem was most marked in urban areas and large cities.  Some three-quarters of the population of Europe now live in urban areas. Extreme heat affects our health causing general discomfort, malaise, respiratory problems, headaches, heat stroke, heat cramps and heat-related mortality.  Read more...

The woodland’s blog has reported on various tree planting initiatives, particularly that presented by the CCC (Committee on Climate change).  This Committee has called for some 1.5 billion new trees to be planted by 2050.   This would require approximately 30,000 hectares of land to be planted each year.  If this were to happen, it would increase Britain’s forest / woodland cover from 13% to 19%; probably the highest level since Roman times.  Sir Harry Studholme, the outgoing chairman of the Forestry Commission has said that such a target is achievable but has urged caution so that mistakes of the past are not repeated.  Read more...

Greenwashing is when a company spends more effort on saying how environmentally friendly they are rather than actually reducing the environmental damage they do.  Examples could include the recent claims made by Easyjet that they are already carbon neutral or the target by BP to become carbon neutral by 2050.  The Easyjet claim smells a bit like like fake news but at least they have pledged to spend £25 million over the next year on offsetting their carbon emissions - it's hard to see how even that can compensate for their 331 planes flying around the world 24/7.  BP's claim is easier to make because it's only a target for the year 2050 - "it's easy to write a cheque if you know it won't be cashed for 30 years" and, in any case, it's rather unlikely that the current board will be in place in 30 years' time.  So, putting aside these particular claims, why do big companies engage in such extravagant claims, and are they really just greenwash? Read more...