The limited natural regeneration of trees in Scotland has contributed to the long term decline and loss of native woodland.  Indeed, Scotland now has one of the lowest levels of native woodland in Europe; circa 4%.  The regeneration of trees / woodland is restricted by browsing by deer.  Any natural regeneration is largely confined to areas where the deer are excluded.  Deer numbers have increased significantly over recent decades, despite various management programmes.  Estimates suggest that the red deer population might now be as high as 400,000. Red deer no longer have any natural predators.  The wolf was eradicated from Scotland more than two centuries ago.  Some have suggested that wolves should be reintroduced as part of a rewilding program to help control deer numbers.  Across Western Europe, the wolf population is estimated to be 12,000+.  The Netherlands, which is more densely populated than Scotland, has a resident wolf population. Researchers at Leeds University have suggested that there could be significant benefits to the re-introduction of the wolf to Scotland.  Using a predator / prey model, they suggest  the presence of wolves would:  reduce the red deer numbers  allow natural tree and woodland regeneration to occur. Increase carbon dioxide uptake due to the regenerated woodland   The study estimated that a wolf population (of 157 animals) could result in the ‘locking up’ of one million tonnes of CO2 each year. The study acknowledges the potential objections that might be raised by livestock farmers, deer stalkers and the public at large.  However, other advantages that might accrue from the introduction of wolves, for example : increased ecotourism contribute to the NetZero2050 program a reduction in deer-related traffic accidents a reduction in Lyme Disease (ticks on deer can carry the disease)  a reduction in then number / expense of deer culls Details of the Leeds research : https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/2688-8319.70016

Woodland covers some 1,000 hectares of the Ashdown Forest, that is roughly 40% of its area. Much of the woodland is relatively young. However, the forest’s capacity for regeneration / renewal is being damaged by overgrazing.  Local deer populations have grown and now represent a problem. Deer browse / graze on vegetation, shoots, flower buds and foliage are stripped off plants.  Young saplings are damaged and bark is eaten, especially when food is scarce.  Consequently, tree and shrub regeneration is limited.  Other species are affected by the feeding of the deer, either through loss of niches or food.  Among those at risk are small mammals and certain butterfly species. [caption id="attachment_34368" align="aligncenter" width="650"] deer damage[/caption] Damage is found in woodlands in many parts of the country, as deer populations have increased in recent times. In the 1970s, the deer population was estimated to be around 450,000 as compared to today’s estimates of over 2 million.  The National Forest Inventory highlighted that "40 percent of British forests have ‘unfavourable’ levels herbivore damage, which limits the survival of young trees and threatens biodiversity".  Apart from deer damage, there is damage by the grey squirrel populations. Deer browsing can : Prevent natural regeneration Affect biodiversity Affect woodland resilience Reduce food availability to the herd which can lead to starvation / loss of condition Deer are also hosts to ticks.  The ticks may be infected with Borrelia burgdorferi  bacteria and transmit them to humans, resulting in Lyme disease. Deer  also contribute to collisions with motor vehicles; more than 450 deer were hit by vehicles on Hampshire roads last year .  In Scotland,  government agency figures indicate that deer vehicle collisions  [DVCs] have almost doubled between 2008 and 2020.   Sadly, people are injured or killed in DVCs, and the repair cost to vehicles runs into millions. The solution to the ‘problem’ is not clear cut. Culling [the selective killing of animals] to control deer populations is one way in which numbers can be reduced, and the damage to woodland mitigated.  However, this approach has been met with opposition by many, including animal rights organisations.  There is the argument that whilst a reduction in deer numbers might fix some problems in the short term, the subsequent increase in plant growth and food availability might lead to increased breeding by the remaining deer and numbers would then increase again.  Also, unsuccessful or inaccurate shooting leads to animal suffering, mutilation and / or a lingering death.   Some might advocate rewilding and the introduction of apex predators (such as the wolf, lynx, wild cats*) as a means of reducing numbers but that might raise other problems! Deer have been 'part and parcel' of woodlands since mediaeval times, when the forests were used for hunting. In the Ashdown Forest, the number of red deer declined during the C17th,  and poaching was a factor in their decline. Fallow deer numbers also declined. [Fallow deer were introduced to England by the Normans around 1100 AD.]  The deer population roaming the forest has increased significantly in the recent decades, and now there are the relatively recently introduced species, muntjac and sika deer.   There are six species of deer in UK woodlands – the two native species, the red deer and roe deer and fallow, muntjac, sika and chinese water deer make up the four non-native species. The problem of over grazing is not unique to the Ashdown forest. For example, deer numbers in Scotland have doubled in recent years to almost a million since 1990.   Finding sustainable (and humane) solutions to the large numbers of deer is difficult. * Wildcats were once widespread in Britain, but by the end of the 18th century, they were to be found only in the northern regions. [caption id="attachment_34415" align="aligncenter" width="700"] Remnants of birch woodland near Loch Muick are subject to browsing by red deer (especially in the winter), so temporary fences have been put in place to allow for regeneration.[/caption]

Several thousand years ago, Scotland was extensively forested.  As the Ice Age came to an end, so the glaciers retreated and Scots Pine, birch, rowan, aspen and juniper populated the land, forming the Caledonian* Forest.  Pollen records indicate that Scots Pine was present in southern England some 9000 years ago, it then moved into Scotland.  Scots Pine is one of the UK’s three native conifers; the other two being Yew and Juniper. As the climate warmed, Scots Pine was lost from most of England.  The pine woodland that formed in Scotland was the westernmost part of the boreal forest that extended across most of Northern Europe.  At its peak, (about seven thousand years ago), the forest covered some 1.5 million hectares in Scotland.  It was a ‘home’ to beavers, wild boar, brown bears, elk and wolves.  These have since been ‘lost’, though in recent times, the European Beaver has been re-introduced. However, with the arrival and establishment of neolithic farmers, areas of heath and woodland were burned to encourage fresh growth of heather for their cattle and goats. Some time later (about 3000 years ago), there was period of cold and wet weather, peat bogs spread and the tree line was lowered. In places, broad leaved trees replaced Scots pine.  Throughout historical times, the felling of trees for timber and fuel continued, as did the grazing of livestock.  Later came extensive sheep farming and this was followed in Victorian times by deer and grouse shooting.  All of these limited woodland regeneration.  So what was once an extensive forest was reduced to a fraction of its former size. Remnants of this once great forest can still be found and even today these woodlands offer a rich habitat that supports a diverse flora and fauna, where pine marten, capercaillie, red squirrel, Scottish crossbill and wildcat can be found.  Glenmore is a National Nature Reserve with many mature Scots Pine, Glen Tanar is another area of Caledonian* pine forest, set within the Cairngorms National Park.  The woodland floor provides a habitat for many plant species typical of the Caledonian Forest - twinflower, creeping lady's-tresses.    Rare and unusual insects are also to be found such as the bumblebee robber fly. According to a recent study by “Trees for life” many of the the remnants of the ancient pine forest are on a ‘knife edge’. Large numbers of deer have and are damaging the woodlands.  The deer eat pine saplings and damage bark. This can result in birch replacing pine. Whilst there have been efforts to exclude deer in some areas by putting fencing in place, the fenced areas were often not big enough or over time the deer were able to breach the fencing and continue to forage.  Pine trees need time to establish themselves free from the impact of grazing. Some areas of pinewood suffered from the planting (in the 1950s) on non-native conifers, such as Sitka Spruce.  As these grow they can crowd out Scots Pine.  Many others areas are small and ‘isolated’. This leads to a reduction in biodiversity, so it is more difficult for natural regeneration to occur.  It also means that resilience is lost in the face of threats like climate change.   * the roman name for the area now Scotland was Caledonia.   Scots Pine is sometimes described as an ‘honorary hardwood', as it grows slower than certain conifers and produces better quality timber. The loss of forest across the Earth is a cause for concern - see https://theconversation.com/how-forest-loss-has-changed-biodiversity-across-the-globe-over-the-last-150-years-140968    

Checking through my emails, I came across a link sent by a friend to one of the winter talks in the program offered by the Botanical Society of Scotland - specifically “The Scottish Uplands: how to revive a degraded landscape” by Dr Helen Armstrong.  The talk was live-streamed but was also recorded and is available here.   Dr Armstrong spent 24 years at the Nature Conservancy Council, the Macaulay Land Use Research Institute, Scottish Natural Heritage and Forest Research carrying out research and advisory work. The following is an attempt to summarise some of the key features of her informative and enlightening talk. Read more...

Twelve thousand years ago (during the late glacial maximum) massive ice sheets and glaciers extended across much of the world. Then, the climate began to warm and about ten thousand years ago, our landscape started to look very different from today - not just because there were no roads, towns or cities but because the newly exposed land was being colonised by plants, trees, animals – and lastly by people.  The forests and woodlands that slowly developed in the post Ice Age period were different to the forests and woodlands that we see today. The land was colonised (at this time) by the plants and animals that lived on ‘the edge of the ice’. Read more...

Once upon a time, beavers (Castor fiber) were widespread in the U.K, however, there are few records after the 11th century and by the sixteenth century they were extinct .     They are still to be found in Europe; several thousand live on or near the Elbe and the Rhône, and in parts of Scandinavia. They were hunted to extinction as the animal provided meat, fur and ‘medicine’.  The yellow secretion of their anal glands (castoreum) was used, at one time, as an analgesic, anti-inflammatory and antipyretic.   The Romans thought that the fumes from burning castoreum could induce an abortion.  Medical uses are no longer ‘in vogue’ but castoreum is used in the making of certain perfumes. Read more...

Forestry is a surprisingly important part of the Swiss economy and the sector employs 90,000 people, with 1.3 million hectares of Switzerland being given over to forestry.  To put this in a UK perspective, it is about the same amount of forestry land as Scotland and is a little more than England (which has 1.1 million hectares of forest).  The reason why Switzerland, smaller in size than England, has as much forestry land is that a much higher percentage of the countryside is given over to trees - Switzerland has 31% tree cover which is much more than England's 9% and is high even compared to Scotland which only has 17%.  In fact European countries are generally more forested than the UK - with Finland at a whopping 76% tree cover and even France is 27%, so Switzerland stands at just above the european average. Read more...

Anyone embarking upon the journey of exploring forest symbolism finds themselves, perhaps like Little Red Riding Hood waving goodbye to her mother at the garden gate, on a vast voyage punctuated with the joys and dangers of the psyche, steeped in ancient myth and legend and infused with spiritual meaning. It is no accident that so many fairytale characters find themselves having to traverse danger-laden tracts of woodland. In a most practical sense, as the ancients dreamed up those stories and even when the oral traditions were finally written down in the middle ages and later, the lands of northern and western Europe were thick with woodland. The dangers were palpable: from rogues and bandits lying in wait for unsuspecting travellers to opportunistic wolves hungry for the kill. Read more...